Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller

This inviting camp fire can be used for both heat and light. Heat and light are two forms of energy that are released when a fuel like wood is burned. The cells of living things also get energy by “burning.” They “burn” glucose in a process called cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration is the process by which living cells break down glucose molecules and release energy. The process is similar to burning, although it doesn’t produce light or intense heat as a campfire does. This is because cellular respiration releases the energy in glucose slowly and in many small steps. It uses the energy released to form molecules of ATP, the energy-carrying molecules that cells use to power biochemical processes. In this way, cellular respiration is an example of energy coupling: glucose is broken down in an exothermic reaction, and then the energy from this reaction powers the endothermic reaction of the formation of ATP.  Cellular respiration involves many chemical reactions, but they can all be summed up with this chemical equation:

C₆H₁₂O₆  6O₂ → 6CO₂  6H₂O Chemical Energy (in ATP)

In words, the equation shows that glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂) react to form carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O), releasing energy in the process. Because oxygen is required for cellular respiration, it is an aerobic process.

Cellular respiration occurs in the cells of all living things, both autotrophs and heterotrophs. All of them burn glucose to form ATP. The reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped into three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (also called the citric acid cycle), and electron transport. Figure 4.10.2 gives an overview of these three stages, which are also described in detail below.

The first stage of cellular respiration is glycolysis, which happens in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.

Splitting Glucose

The word glycolysis literally means “glucose splitting,” which is exactly what happens in this stage. Enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (also known as pyruvic acid). This occurs in several steps, as summarized in the following diagram.

Results of Glycolysis

Energy is needed at the start of glycolysis to split the glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules which go on to stage II of cellular respiration. The energy needed to split glucose is provided by two molecules of ATP; this is called the energy investment phase. As glycolysis proceeds, energy is released, and the energy is used to make four molecules of ATP; this is the energy harvesting phase. As a result, there is a net gain of two ATP molecules during glycolysis. During this stage, high-energy electrons are also transferred to molecules of NAD  to produce two molecules of NADH, another energy-carrying molecule. NADH is used in stage III of cellular respiration to make more ATP.

Before you read about the remaining stages of cellular respiration, you need to know more about the mitochondrion, where these stages take place. The structure of the mitochondrion plays an important role in aerobic respiration. A diagram of a mitochondrion is shown in Figure 4.10.5.

Transition Reaction

Before pyruvate can enter the next stage of cellular respiration it needs to be modified slightly.  The transition reaction is a very short reaction which converts the two molecules of pyruvate that enter the mitochondrion to two molecules of acetyl CoA, and two pairs of high energy electron from this process convert NAD to NADH. Pyruvate is a 3 carbon molecule, and acetyl CoA is a two carbon molecule, so this process also creates two molecules of carbon dioxide.   The carbon dioxide is released, the acetyl CoA moves to the Citric Acid Cycle (stage II), and the NADH carries the high energy electrons to the Electron Transport System (stage III).

Cellular Respiration Stage II: The Citric Acid Cycle

Recall that glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), which are then converted to acetyl CoA during the short transition reaction. These molecules enter the matrix of a mitochondrion, where they start the Citric Acid Cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle). The reason this stage is considered a cycle is because a molecule called oxaloacetate is present at both the beginning and end of this reaction and is used to break down the two molecules of acetyl CoA.  The reactions that occur next are shown in Figure 4.10.6.

This cyclical process is often referred to as the Krebs cycle, for Hans Krebs who first described it and was awarded a Nobel prize in 1953 for doing so. The  Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)itself actually begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule called OAA (oxaloacetate) (see Figure 4.10.6). This produces citric acid, which has six carbon atoms.

After citric acid forms, it goes through a series of reactions that release energy. The energy is captured in molecules of NADH, ATP, and FADH₂, another energy-carrying coenzyme. Carbon dioxide is also released as a waste product of these reactions.

The final step of the citric acid cycle regenerates OAA, the molecule that began the cycle. This molecule is needed for the next turn through the cycle. Two turns are needed because glycolysis produces two pyruvic acid molecules when it splits glucose.

Results of the Glycolysis, Transition Reaction and Citric Acid Cycle

After glycolysis, transition reaction, and the citric acid cycle, the glucose molecule has been broken down completely. All six of its carbon atoms have combined with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The energy from its chemical bonds has been stored in a total of 16 energy-carrier molecules. These molecules are:

• 4 ATP (2 from glycolysis, 2 from citric acid cycle)
• 10 NADH (2 from glycolysis, 2 from transition reaction, and 6 from citric acid cycle)
• 2 FADH₂ (both from the citric acid cycle)

The events of cellular respiration up to this point are exergonic reactions– they are releasing energy that had been stored in the bonds of the glucose molecule.  This energy will be transferred to the third and final stage of cellular respiration: the Electron Transport System, which is an endergonic reaction.  Using an exothermic reaction to power an endothermic reaction is known as energy coupling.

 ETC, the final stage in cellular respiration produces 32 ATP.  The Electron Transport Chain is the final stage of cellular respiration. In this stage, energy being transported by NADH and FADH₂ is transferred to ATP.  In addition, oxygen acts as the final proton acceptor for the hydrogens released from all the NADH and FADH₂, forming water.  Figure 4.10.8 shows the reactants and products of the ETC.

Transporting Electrons

The Electron transport chain is the third stage of cellular respiration and is illustrated in Figure 4.10.8. During this stage, high-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH₂, and they move along electron-transport chains on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. An electron-transport chain is a series of molecules that transfer electrons from molecule to molecule by chemical reactions. Some of the energy from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions (H ) across the inner membrane, from the matrix into the intermembrane space. This ion transfer creates an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP.

As shown in Figure 4.10.8, the pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a greater concentration of the ions in the intermembrane space than in the matrix. This gradient causes the ions to flow back across the membrane into the matrix, where their concentration is lower. ATP synthase acts as a channel protein, helping the hydrogen ions cross the membrane. It also acts as an enzyme, forming ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in a process called oxidative phosphorylation. After passing through the electron-transport chain, the “spent” electrons combine with oxygen to form water.

You have seen how the three stages of aerobic respiration use the energy in glucose to make ATP. How much ATP is produced in all three stages combined? Glycolysis produces two ATP molecules, and the Krebs cycle produces two more. Electron transport begins with several molecules of NADH and FADH₂ from the Krebs cycle and transfers their energy into as many as 34 more ATP molecules. All told, then, up to 38 molecules of ATP can be produced from just one molecule of glucose in the process of cellular respiration.

References

CrashCourse. (2012, March 12). ATP & Respiration: Crash Course Biology #7. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=00jbG_cfGuQ&feature=emb_logo

Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, April 25). Figure 24.8 Electron Transport Chain [digital image]. In Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions (Section ). OpenStax.  https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/24-2-carbohydrate-metabolism

Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, April 25). Figure 24.9 Carbohydrate Metabolism [digital image]. In Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions (Section 24.2). OpenStax.  https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/24-2-carbohydrate-metabolism

Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2022. (2022, January 21). Hans Krebs – Biographical. NobelPrize.org.  https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1953/
krebs/biographical/

The Amoeba Sisters. (2014, October 22). Cellular Respiration and the Mighty Mitochondria. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Eo7JtRA7lg&t=3s