{"id":273,"date":"2019-06-24T12:48:26","date_gmt":"2019-06-24T16:48:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/chapter\/4-14-case-study-conclusion-more-than-just-tired\/"},"modified":"2022-01-19T15:39:44","modified_gmt":"2022-01-19T20:39:44","slug":"4-14-case-study-conclusion-more-than-just-tired","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/chapter\/4-14-case-study-conclusion-more-than-just-tired\/","title":{"raw":"4.14 Case Study Conclusion: More Than Just Tired","rendered":"4.14 Case Study Conclusion: More Than Just Tired"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\n\nCreated by CK12\/Adapted by Christine Miller\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_271\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"516\"]<img class=\" wp-image-271\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/testclone1\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample.jpg\" alt=\"Image shows a micrograph of muscle tissue. Two of the cells contain large numbers of small red granules, which are diseased mitochondria.\" width=\"516\" height=\"344\"> <em>Figure 4.14.1 When muscle tissue is stained with a particular type of dye, clumps of diseased mitochondria show up in red and are termed \"ragged red fibres\".\u00a0 This is one of the diagnostic tools used to diagnose mitochondrial disease.<\/em>[\/caption]\n\n<\/div>\nJasmin discovered that her extreme fatigue, muscle pain, vision problems, and vomiting were due to problems in her [pb_glossary id=\"1357\"]mitochondria[\/pb_glossary], like the damaged [pb_glossary id=\"1357\"]mitochondria[\/pb_glossary] shown in red in Figure 4.14.1. Mitochondria are small, membrane-bound organelles found in [pb_glossary id=\"1931\"]eukaryotic[\/pb_glossary] cells that provide energy for the cells of the body. They do this by carrying out the final two steps of aerobic cellular respiration: the [pb_glossary id=\"2037\"]Krebs cycle[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1202\"]electron transport[\/pb_glossary]. This is the major way that the human body breaks down the sugar glucose from food into a form of energy cells can use, namely the molecule [pb_glossary id=\"1240\"]ATP[\/pb_glossary].\n\nBecause mitochondria provide energy for cells, you can understand why Jasmin was experiencing extreme fatigue, particularly after running. Her damaged mitochondria could not keep up with her need for energy, particularly after intense exercise, which requires a lot of additional energy. What is perhaps <em>not<\/em>\u00a0so obvious are the reasons for her other symptoms, such as blurry vision, muscle spasms, and vomiting. All of the cells in the body require energy in order to function properly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mitochondrial_disease\">Mitochondrial diseases<\/a> can cause problems in mitochondria in any cell of the body, including muscle cells and cells of the nervous system, which includes the brain and nerves. The nervous system and muscles work together to control vision and digestive system functions, such as vomiting, so when they are not functioning properly, a variety of symptoms can emerge. This also explains why Jasmin\u2019s niece, who\u00a0has a similar mitochondrial disease, has symptoms related to brain function, such as seizures and learning disabilities. Our cells are microscopic, and mitochondria are even tinier \u2014 but they are essential for the proper functioning of our bodies. When they are damaged, serious health effects can occur.\n\n&nbsp;\n\n[caption id=\"attachment_272\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"469\"]<img class=\" wp-image-272\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/testclone1\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice.jpg\" alt=\"Image shows an adult and child sitting together.\" width=\"469\" height=\"345\"> <em>Figure 4.14.2 Mitochondrial disease can manifest itself very differently in different people, even if they are related.\u00a0 Jasmin and her niece have the same mitochondrial disease, but with different age of onset, different symptoms and different severity of symptoms.<\/em>[\/caption]\n\nOne seemingly confusing aspect of mitochondrial diseases is that the type of symptoms, severity of symptoms, and age of onset can vary wildly between people \u2014 even within the same family! In Jasmin\u2019s case, she did not notice symptoms until adulthood, while her niece had more severe symptoms starting at a much younger age. This makes sense when you know more about how mitochondrial diseases work.\n\nInherited mitochondrial diseases can be due to damage in either the [pb_glossary id=\"1735\"]DNA[\/pb_glossary] in the nucleus of cells or in the DNA in the mitochondria themselves. Recall that mitochondria are thought to have evolved from prokaryotic organisms that were once free-living, but were then infected or engulfed by larger cells. One of the pieces of evidence that supports this [pb_glossary id=\"1206\"]endosymbiotic theory[\/pb_glossary] is that mitochondria have their own, separate DNA. When the mitochondrial DNA is damaged (or mutated) it can result in some types of mitochondrial diseases. However, these mutations do not typically affect\u00a0<em>all<\/em> of the mitochondria in a cell. During cell division, organelles such as mitochondria are replicated and passed down to the new daughter cells. If some of the mitochondria are damaged, and others are not, the daughter cells can have different amounts of damaged mitochondria. This helps explain the wide range of symptoms in people with mitochondrial diseases \u2014 even ones in the same family \u2014 because different cells in their bodies are affected in varying degrees. Jasmin\u2019s niece was affected strongly and her symptoms were noticed early, while Jasmin\u2019s symptoms were more mild and did not become apparent until adulthood.\n\nThere is still much more that needs to be discovered about the different types of mitochondrial diseases. But by learning about cells, their organelles, how they obtain energy, and how they divide, you should now have a better understanding of the biology behind these diseases.\n\nApply your understanding of cells to your own life. Can you think of other diseases that affect cellular structures or functions.\u00a0Do they\u00a0affect people you know? Since your entire body is made of cells, when\u00a0cells\u00a0are damaged or not functioning properly, it can cause a wide variety of health problems.\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h1 class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter 4 Summary<\/h1>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n\nType your learning objectives here.\nIn this chapter you learned many facts about cells. Specifically, you learned that:\n<ul>\n \t<li>Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things.<\/li>\n \t<li>The first cells were observed from cork by Hooke in the 1600s. Soon after, van Leeuwenhoek observed other living cells.<\/li>\n \t<li>In the early 1800s, Schwann and Schleiden theorized that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850, Virchow saw cells dividing, and added his own theory that living cells arise only from other living cells. These ideas led to cell theory, which states that all organisms are made of cells, all life functions occur in cells, and all cells come from other cells.<\/li>\n \t<li>The invention of the electron microscope in the 1950s allowed scientists to see organelles and other structures inside cells for the first time.<\/li>\n \t<li>There is variation in cells, but all cells have a [pb_glossary id=\"1210\"]plasma membrane[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1198\"]cytoplasm[\/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id=\"1241\"]ribosomes[\/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id=\"1735\"]DNA[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>The plasma membrane is composed mainly of a bilayer of phospholipid molecules and forms a barrier between the cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell. It allows only certain substances to pass in or out of the cell. Some cells have extensions of their plasma membrane with other functions, such as [pb_glossary id=\"1269\"]flagella[\/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id=\"1858\"]cilia[\/pb_glossary].<\/li>\n \t<li>Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills a cell and is enclosed by the plasma membrane. It helps give the cell shape, holds organelles, and provides a site for many of the biochemical reactions inside the cell. The liquid part of the cytoplasm is called cytosol.<\/li>\n \t<li>Ribosomes are small structures where proteins are made.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>Cells are usually very small, so they have a large enough surface area-to-volume ratio to maintain normal cell processes. Cells with different functions often have different shapes.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"2191\"]Prokaryotic[\/pb_glossary] cells do not have a [pb_glossary id=\"1363\"]nucleus[\/pb_glossary]. [pb_glossary id=\"1931\"]Eukaryotic[\/pb_glossary] cells have a nucleus, as well as other organelles. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a specific job.<\/li>\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"1333\"]cytoskeleton[\/pb_glossary] is a highly organized framework of protein filaments and tubules that criss-cross the cytoplasm of a cell. It gives the cell shape and helps to hold cell structures (such as organelles) in place.<\/li>\n \t<li>The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell. It is considered to be the cell's control center, and it contains DNA and controls gene expression, including which proteins the cell makes.<\/li>\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"1357\"]mitochondrion[\/pb_glossary] is an organelle that makes energy available to cells. According to the widely accepted [pb_glossary id=\"1206\"]endosymbiotic theory[\/pb_glossary], mitochondria evolved from prokaryotic cells that were once free-living organisms that infected or were engulfed by larger prokaryotic cells.<\/li>\n \t<li>The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that helps make and transport proteins and lipids. [pb_glossary id=\"1267\"]Rough endoplasmic reticulum[\/pb_glossary] (RER) is studded with ribosomes. [pb_glossary id=\"1251\"]Smooth endoplasmic reticulum[\/pb_glossary] (SER) has no ribosomes.<\/li>\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"1208\"]Golgi apparatus[\/pb_glossary] is a large organelle that processes proteins and prepares them for use both inside and outside the cell. It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1378\"]Vesicles [\/pb_glossary]and [pb_glossary id=\"1377\"]vacuoles[\/pb_glossary] are sac-like organelles that may be used to store and transport materials in the cell or as chambers for biochemical reactions. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicles that break down foreign matter, dead cells, or poisons.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1248\"]Centrioles[\/pb_glossary] are organelles located near the nucleus that help organize the chromosomes before cell division so each daughter cell receives the correct number of chromosomes.<\/li>\n \t<li>There are two basic ways that substances can cross the cell\u2019s plasma membrane: [pb_glossary id=\"1318\"]passive transport[\/pb_glossary] (which requires no energy expenditure by the cell) and [pb_glossary id=\"1312\"]active transport[\/pb_glossary] (which requires energy).<\/li>\n \t<li>No energy is needed from the cell for passive transport because it occurs when substances move naturally from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Types of passive transport in cells include:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>Simple [pb_glossary id=\"1901\"]diffusion[\/pb_glossary], which is the movement of a substance due to differences in concentration without any help from other molecules. This is how very small, hydrophobic molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, enter and leave the cell.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1297\"]Osmosis[\/pb_glossary], which is the diffusion of water molecules across the membrane.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1317\"]Facilitated diffusion[\/pb_glossary], which is the movement of a substance across a membrane due to differences in concentration, but only with the help of transport proteins in the membrane (such as channel proteins or carrier proteins). This is how large or hydrophilic molecules and charged ions enter and leave the cell.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1312\"]Active transport[\/pb_glossary] requires energy to move substances across the plasma membrane, often because the substances are moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration or because of their large size. Two examples of active transport are the sodium-potassium pump and vesicle transport.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, both against a concentration gradient, in order to maintain the proper concentrations of both ions inside and outside the cell and to thereby control membrane potential.<\/li>\n \t<li>Vesicle transport uses vesicles to move large molecules into or out of cells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>Energy is the ability to do work. It is needed by every living cell to carry out life processes.<\/li>\n \t<li>The form of energy that living things need is chemical energy, and it comes from food. Food consists of organic molecules that store energy in their chemical bonds.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1800\"]Autotrophs[\/pb_glossary] (producers) make their own food. Think of plants that make food by photosynthesis. [pb_glossary id=\"1988\"]Heterotrophs[\/pb_glossary] (consumers) obtain food by eating other organisms.<\/li>\n \t<li>Organisms mainly use the molecules [pb_glossary id=\"1191\"]glucose[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1240\"]ATP[\/pb_glossary] for energy. Glucose is the compact, stable form of energy that is carried in the blood and taken up by cells. ATP contains less energy and is used to power cell processes.<\/li>\n \t<li>The flow of energy through living things begins with [pb_glossary id=\"1306\"]photosynthesis[\/pb_glossary], which creates glucose. The cells of organisms break down glucose and make ATP.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1328\"]Cellular respiration[\/pb_glossary] is the aerobic process by which living cells break down glucose molecules, release energy, and form molecules of ATP. Overall, this three-stage process involves glucose and oxygen reacting to form carbon dioxide and water.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1969\"]Glycolysis[\/pb_glossary], the first stage of cellular respiration, takes place in the cytoplasm. In this step, enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, which releases energy that is transferred to ATP.<\/li>\n \t<li>Transition Reaction takes place between glycolysis and Krebs Cycle. It is a very short reaction in which the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are converted into Acetyl CoA in order to enter the Krebs Cycle.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"2037\"]Krebs Cycle[\/pb_glossary], the second stage of cellular respiration, takes place in the matrix of a mitochondrion. During this stage, two turns through the cycle result in all of the carbon atoms from the two pyruvate molecules forming carbon dioxide and the energy from their chemical bonds being stored in a total of 16 energy-carrying molecules (including four from glycolysis).<\/li>\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"1202\"]Electron Transport System[\/pb_glossary], he third stage of cellular respiration, takes place on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Electrons are transported from molecule to molecule down an electron-transport chain. Some of the energy from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of many more molecules of ATP.<\/li>\n \t<li>In all three stages of aerobic cellular respiration combined, as many as 38 molecules of ATP are produced from just one molecule of glucose.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>Some organisms can produce ATP from glucose by [pb_glossary id=\"1274\"]anaerobic respiration[\/pb_glossary], which does not require oxygen. [pb_glossary id=\"1466\"]Fermentation[\/pb_glossary] is an important type of anaerobic process. There are two types: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Both start with glycolysis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1405\"]Alcoholic fermentation[\/pb_glossary] is carried out by single-celled organisms, including yeasts and some bacteria. We use alcoholic fermentation in these organisms to make biofuels, bread, and wine.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1912\"]Lactic acid fermentation[\/pb_glossary] is undertaken by certain bacteria, including the bacteria in yogurt, and also by our muscle cells when they are worked hard and fast.<\/li>\n \t<li>Anaerobic respiration produces far less ATP (typically produces 2 ATP) than does aerobic cellular respiration, but it has the advantage of being much faster.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>The [pb_glossary id=\"1287\"]cell cycle[\/pb_glossary] is a repeating series of events that includes growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division.<\/li>\n \t<li>In a eukaryotic cell, the cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide. During mitotic phase, first the nucleus divides (mitosis) and then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis), which produces two daughter cells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n \t<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n \t<li>Until a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a grainy material called chromatin. After DNA replicates and the cell is about to divide, the DNA condenses and coils into the X-shaped form of a chromosome. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, which are joined together at a centromere.<\/li>\n \t<li>During mitosis, sister chromatids separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This happens in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n \t<li>The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins that signal the cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle at key checkpoints.<\/li>\n \t<li>[pb_glossary id=\"1268\"]Cancer[\/pb_glossary] is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated, often because the cell's DNA has become damaged. Cancerous cells grow out of control and may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\nIn this chapter, you learned about cells and some of their functions, as well as how they pass genetic material in the form of DNA to their daughter cells. In the next chapter, you will learn how DNA is passed down to offspring, which causes traits to be inherited. These traits may be innocuous (such as eye colour) or detrimental (such as mutations that cause disease). The study of how genes are passed down to offspring is called genetics, and as you will learn in the next chapter, this is an interesting topic that is highly relevant to human health.\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h1 class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter 4 Review<\/h1>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n \t<li>Sequence:[h5p id=\"47\"]<\/li>\n \t<li>Drag and Drop:[h5p id=\"48\"]<\/li>\n \t<li>True or False:[h5p id=\"49\"]<\/li>\n \t<li>Multiple Choice:\u00a0[h5p id=\"50\"]<\/li>\n \t<li>Briefly explain how the energy in the food you eat gets there, and how it provides energy for your neurons in the form necessary to power this process.<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain why the inside of the plasma membrane \u2014 the side that faces the cytoplasm of the cell \u2014 must be hydrophilic.<\/li>\n \t<li>Explain the relationships between interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Attributions<\/h2>\n<strong>Figure 4.14.1<\/strong>\n\n<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ragged_red_fibres_-_gtc_-_very_high_mag.jpg\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Mitochondrial Disease muscle sample<\/a> by <a title=\"User:Nephron\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Nephron\">Nephron<\/a> is used under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.\n\n<strong>Figure 4.14.2<\/strong>\n\n<a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/Xu5d_zNq5yY\">Aunt and Niece<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/@tata186\">Tatiana Rodriguez<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/\">Unsplash<\/a> is used under the <a class=\"ICezk _2GAZm _2WvKc\" href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license\">Unsplash License<\/a> (https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license).\n<h2>Reference<\/h2>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wikipedia contributors. (2020, June 6). Mitochondrial disease. In\u00a0<i>Wikipedia. <\/i>\u00a0https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Mitochondrial_disease&amp;oldid=961126371<\/p>","rendered":"<div>\n<p>Created by CK12\/Adapted by Christine Miller<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_271\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-271\" style=\"width: 516px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-271\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/testclone1\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample.jpg\" alt=\"Image shows a micrograph of muscle tissue. Two of the cells contain large numbers of small red granules, which are diseased mitochondria.\" width=\"516\" height=\"344\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample-65x43.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample-225x150.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2019\/06\/Mitochondrial-Disease-muscle-sample-350x233.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 516px) 100vw, 516px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-271\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Figure 4.14.1 When muscle tissue is stained with a particular type of dye, clumps of diseased mitochondria show up in red and are termed &#8220;ragged red fibres&#8221;.\u00a0 This is one of the diagnostic tools used to diagnose mitochondrial disease.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p>Jasmin discovered that her extreme fatigue, muscle pain, vision problems, and vomiting were due to problems in her <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1357\">mitochondria<\/a>, like the damaged <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1357\">mitochondria<\/a> shown in red in Figure 4.14.1. Mitochondria are small, membrane-bound organelles found in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1931\">eukaryotic<\/a> cells that provide energy for the cells of the body. They do this by carrying out the final two steps of aerobic cellular respiration: the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_2037\">Krebs cycle<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1202\">electron transport<\/a>. This is the major way that the human body breaks down the sugar glucose from food into a form of energy cells can use, namely the molecule <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1240\">ATP<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Because mitochondria provide energy for cells, you can understand why Jasmin was experiencing extreme fatigue, particularly after running. Her damaged mitochondria could not keep up with her need for energy, particularly after intense exercise, which requires a lot of additional energy. What is perhaps <em>not<\/em>\u00a0so obvious are the reasons for her other symptoms, such as blurry vision, muscle spasms, and vomiting. All of the cells in the body require energy in order to function properly. <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Mitochondrial_disease\">Mitochondrial diseases<\/a> can cause problems in mitochondria in any cell of the body, including muscle cells and cells of the nervous system, which includes the brain and nerves. The nervous system and muscles work together to control vision and digestive system functions, such as vomiting, so when they are not functioning properly, a variety of symptoms can emerge. This also explains why Jasmin\u2019s niece, who\u00a0has a similar mitochondrial disease, has symptoms related to brain function, such as seizures and learning disabilities. Our cells are microscopic, and mitochondria are even tinier \u2014 but they are essential for the proper functioning of our bodies. When they are damaged, serious health effects can occur.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_272\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-272\" style=\"width: 469px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-272\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/testclone1\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice.jpg\" alt=\"Image shows an adult and child sitting together.\" width=\"469\" height=\"345\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice.jpg 1962w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-300x220.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-1024x752.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-768x564.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-1536x1128.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-65x48.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-225x165.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1601\/2022\/01\/Aunt-and-Neice-350x257.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 469px) 100vw, 469px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-272\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Figure 4.14.2 Mitochondrial disease can manifest itself very differently in different people, even if they are related.\u00a0 Jasmin and her niece have the same mitochondrial disease, but with different age of onset, different symptoms and different severity of symptoms.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One seemingly confusing aspect of mitochondrial diseases is that the type of symptoms, severity of symptoms, and age of onset can vary wildly between people \u2014 even within the same family! In Jasmin\u2019s case, she did not notice symptoms until adulthood, while her niece had more severe symptoms starting at a much younger age. This makes sense when you know more about how mitochondrial diseases work.<\/p>\n<p>Inherited mitochondrial diseases can be due to damage in either the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1735\">DNA<\/a> in the nucleus of cells or in the DNA in the mitochondria themselves. Recall that mitochondria are thought to have evolved from prokaryotic organisms that were once free-living, but were then infected or engulfed by larger cells. One of the pieces of evidence that supports this <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1206\">endosymbiotic theory<\/a> is that mitochondria have their own, separate DNA. When the mitochondrial DNA is damaged (or mutated) it can result in some types of mitochondrial diseases. However, these mutations do not typically affect\u00a0<em>all<\/em> of the mitochondria in a cell. During cell division, organelles such as mitochondria are replicated and passed down to the new daughter cells. If some of the mitochondria are damaged, and others are not, the daughter cells can have different amounts of damaged mitochondria. This helps explain the wide range of symptoms in people with mitochondrial diseases \u2014 even ones in the same family \u2014 because different cells in their bodies are affected in varying degrees. Jasmin\u2019s niece was affected strongly and her symptoms were noticed early, while Jasmin\u2019s symptoms were more mild and did not become apparent until adulthood.<\/p>\n<p>There is still much more that needs to be discovered about the different types of mitochondrial diseases. But by learning about cells, their organelles, how they obtain energy, and how they divide, you should now have a better understanding of the biology behind these diseases.<\/p>\n<p>Apply your understanding of cells to your own life. Can you think of other diseases that affect cellular structures or functions.\u00a0Do they\u00a0affect people you know? Since your entire body is made of cells, when\u00a0cells\u00a0are damaged or not functioning properly, it can cause a wide variety of health problems.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h1 class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter 4 Summary<\/h1>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Type your learning objectives here.<br \/>\nIn this chapter you learned many facts about cells. Specifically, you learned that:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Cells are the basic units of structure and function of living things.<\/li>\n<li>The first cells were observed from cork by Hooke in the 1600s. Soon after, van Leeuwenhoek observed other living cells.<\/li>\n<li>In the early 1800s, Schwann and Schleiden theorized that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Around 1850, Virchow saw cells dividing, and added his own theory that living cells arise only from other living cells. These ideas led to cell theory, which states that all organisms are made of cells, all life functions occur in cells, and all cells come from other cells.<\/li>\n<li>The invention of the electron microscope in the 1950s allowed scientists to see organelles and other structures inside cells for the first time.<\/li>\n<li>There is variation in cells, but all cells have a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1210\">plasma membrane<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1198\">cytoplasm<\/a>, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1241\">ribosomes<\/a>, and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1735\">DNA<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li>The plasma membrane is composed mainly of a bilayer of phospholipid molecules and forms a barrier between the cytoplasm inside the cell and the environment outside the cell. It allows only certain substances to pass in or out of the cell. Some cells have extensions of their plasma membrane with other functions, such as <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1269\">flagella<\/a> or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1858\">cilia<\/a>.<\/li>\n<li>Cytoplasm is a thick solution that fills a cell and is enclosed by the plasma membrane. It helps give the cell shape, holds organelles, and provides a site for many of the biochemical reactions inside the cell. The liquid part of the cytoplasm is called cytosol.<\/li>\n<li>Ribosomes are small structures where proteins are made.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Cells are usually very small, so they have a large enough surface area-to-volume ratio to maintain normal cell processes. Cells with different functions often have different shapes.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_2191\">Prokaryotic<\/a> cells do not have a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1363\">nucleus<\/a>. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1931\">Eukaryotic<\/a> cells have a nucleus, as well as other organelles. An organelle is a structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is enclosed within a membrane and performs a specific job.<\/li>\n<li>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1333\">cytoskeleton<\/a> is a highly organized framework of protein filaments and tubules that criss-cross the cytoplasm of a cell. It gives the cell shape and helps to hold cell structures (such as organelles) in place.<\/li>\n<li>The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell. It is considered to be the cell&#8217;s control center, and it contains DNA and controls gene expression, including which proteins the cell makes.<\/li>\n<li>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1357\">mitochondrion<\/a> is an organelle that makes energy available to cells. According to the widely accepted <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1206\">endosymbiotic theory<\/a>, mitochondria evolved from prokaryotic cells that were once free-living organisms that infected or were engulfed by larger prokaryotic cells.<\/li>\n<li>The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle that helps make and transport proteins and lipids. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1267\">Rough endoplasmic reticulum<\/a> (RER) is studded with ribosomes. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1251\">Smooth endoplasmic reticulum<\/a> (SER) has no ribosomes.<\/li>\n<li>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1208\">Golgi apparatus<\/a> is a large organelle that processes proteins and prepares them for use both inside and outside the cell. It is also involved in the transport of lipids around the cell.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1378\">Vesicles <\/a>and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1377\">vacuoles<\/a> are sac-like organelles that may be used to store and transport materials in the cell or as chambers for biochemical reactions. Lysosomes and peroxisomes are vesicles that break down foreign matter, dead cells, or poisons.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1248\">Centrioles<\/a> are organelles located near the nucleus that help organize the chromosomes before cell division so each daughter cell receives the correct number of chromosomes.<\/li>\n<li>There are two basic ways that substances can cross the cell\u2019s plasma membrane: <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1318\">passive transport<\/a> (which requires no energy expenditure by the cell) and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1312\">active transport<\/a> (which requires energy).<\/li>\n<li>No energy is needed from the cell for passive transport because it occurs when substances move naturally from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. Types of passive transport in cells include:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li>Simple <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1901\">diffusion<\/a>, which is the movement of a substance due to differences in concentration without any help from other molecules. This is how very small, hydrophobic molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, enter and leave the cell.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1297\">Osmosis<\/a>, which is the diffusion of water molecules across the membrane.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1317\">Facilitated diffusion<\/a>, which is the movement of a substance across a membrane due to differences in concentration, but only with the help of transport proteins in the membrane (such as channel proteins or carrier proteins). This is how large or hydrophilic molecules and charged ions enter and leave the cell.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1312\">Active transport<\/a> requires energy to move substances across the plasma membrane, often because the substances are moving from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration or because of their large size. Two examples of active transport are the sodium-potassium pump and vesicle transport.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li>The sodium-potassium pump moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, both against a concentration gradient, in order to maintain the proper concentrations of both ions inside and outside the cell and to thereby control membrane potential.<\/li>\n<li>Vesicle transport uses vesicles to move large molecules into or out of cells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Energy is the ability to do work. It is needed by every living cell to carry out life processes.<\/li>\n<li>The form of energy that living things need is chemical energy, and it comes from food. Food consists of organic molecules that store energy in their chemical bonds.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1800\">Autotrophs<\/a> (producers) make their own food. Think of plants that make food by photosynthesis. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1988\">Heterotrophs<\/a> (consumers) obtain food by eating other organisms.<\/li>\n<li>Organisms mainly use the molecules <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1191\">glucose<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1240\">ATP<\/a> for energy. Glucose is the compact, stable form of energy that is carried in the blood and taken up by cells. ATP contains less energy and is used to power cell processes.<\/li>\n<li>The flow of energy through living things begins with <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1306\">photosynthesis<\/a>, which creates glucose. The cells of organisms break down glucose and make ATP.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1328\">Cellular respiration<\/a> is the aerobic process by which living cells break down glucose molecules, release energy, and form molecules of ATP. Overall, this three-stage process involves glucose and oxygen reacting to form carbon dioxide and water.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1969\">Glycolysis<\/a>, the first stage of cellular respiration, takes place in the cytoplasm. In this step, enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, which releases energy that is transferred to ATP.<\/li>\n<li>Transition Reaction takes place between glycolysis and Krebs Cycle. It is a very short reaction in which the pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are converted into Acetyl CoA in order to enter the Krebs Cycle.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_2037\">Krebs Cycle<\/a>, the second stage of cellular respiration, takes place in the matrix of a mitochondrion. During this stage, two turns through the cycle result in all of the carbon atoms from the two pyruvate molecules forming carbon dioxide and the energy from their chemical bonds being stored in a total of 16 energy-carrying molecules (including four from glycolysis).<\/li>\n<li>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1202\">Electron Transport System<\/a>, he third stage of cellular respiration, takes place on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Electrons are transported from molecule to molecule down an electron-transport chain. Some of the energy from the electrons is used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane, creating an electrochemical gradient that drives the synthesis of many more molecules of ATP.<\/li>\n<li>In all three stages of aerobic cellular respiration combined, as many as 38 molecules of ATP are produced from just one molecule of glucose.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Some organisms can produce ATP from glucose by <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1274\">anaerobic respiration<\/a>, which does not require oxygen. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1466\">Fermentation<\/a> is an important type of anaerobic process. There are two types: alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation. Both start with glycolysis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1405\">Alcoholic fermentation<\/a> is carried out by single-celled organisms, including yeasts and some bacteria. We use alcoholic fermentation in these organisms to make biofuels, bread, and wine.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1912\">Lactic acid fermentation<\/a> is undertaken by certain bacteria, including the bacteria in yogurt, and also by our muscle cells when they are worked hard and fast.<\/li>\n<li>Anaerobic respiration produces far less ATP (typically produces 2 ATP) than does aerobic cellular respiration, but it has the advantage of being much faster.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1287\">cell cycle<\/a> is a repeating series of events that includes growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division.<\/li>\n<li>In a eukaryotic cell, the cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and mitotic phase. During interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide. During mitotic phase, first the nucleus divides (mitosis) and then the cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis), which produces two daughter cells.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"list-style-type: none\">\n<ul>\n<li>Until a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a grainy material called chromatin. After DNA replicates and the cell is about to divide, the DNA condenses and coils into the X-shaped form of a chromosome. Each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, which are joined together at a centromere.<\/li>\n<li>During mitosis, sister chromatids separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This happens in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>The cell cycle is controlled mainly by regulatory proteins that signal the cell to either start or delay the next phase of the cycle at key checkpoints.<\/li>\n<li><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_273_1268\">Cancer<\/a> is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated, often because the cell&#8217;s DNA has become damaged. Cancerous cells grow out of control and may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In this chapter, you learned about cells and some of their functions, as well as how they pass genetic material in the form of DNA to their daughter cells. In the next chapter, you will learn how DNA is passed down to offspring, which causes traits to be inherited. These traits may be innocuous (such as eye colour) or detrimental (such as mutations that cause disease). The study of how genes are passed down to offspring is called genetics, and as you will learn in the next chapter, this is an interesting topic that is highly relevant to human health.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h1 class=\"textbox__title\">Chapter 4 Review<\/h1>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>Sequence:\n<div id=\"h5p-47\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-47\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"47\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Development of Cell Theory\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>Drag and Drop:\n<div id=\"h5p-48\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-48\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"48\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Eukaryote and Prokaryote Drag and Drop\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>True or False:\n<div id=\"h5p-49\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-49\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"49\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Cell biology True or False\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>Multiple Choice:\u00a0\n<div id=\"h5p-50\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-50\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"50\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Cell Biology Multiple Choice\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>Briefly explain how the energy in the food you eat gets there, and how it provides energy for your neurons in the form necessary to power this process.<\/li>\n<li>Explain why the inside of the plasma membrane \u2014 the side that faces the cytoplasm of the cell \u2014 must be hydrophilic.<\/li>\n<li>Explain the relationships between interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Attributions<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Figure 4.14.1<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ragged_red_fibres_-_gtc_-_very_high_mag.jpg\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Mitochondrial Disease muscle sample<\/a> by <a title=\"User:Nephron\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Nephron\">Nephron<\/a> is used under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> (https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0) license.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure 4.14.2<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/photos\/Xu5d_zNq5yY\">Aunt and Niece<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/@tata186\">Tatiana Rodriguez<\/a> on <a href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/\">Unsplash<\/a> is used under the <a class=\"ICezk _2GAZm _2WvKc\" href=\"https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license\">Unsplash License<\/a> (https:\/\/unsplash.com\/license).<\/p>\n<h2>Reference<\/h2>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wikipedia contributors. (2020, June 6). Mitochondrial disease. In\u00a0<i>Wikipedia. <\/i>\u00a0https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Mitochondrial_disease&amp;oldid=961126371<\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_273_1357\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1357\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A double-membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. Mitochondria convert oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy \"currency\" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1931\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1931\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Cells which have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike prokaryotes, which have no membrane-bound organelles.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_2037\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_2037\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1202\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1202\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A series of electron transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is reduced to form water.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1240\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1240\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A complex organic chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the \"molecular unit of currency\" of intracellular energy transfer.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1735\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1735\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Deoxyribonucleic acid - the molecule carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1206\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1206\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An evolutionary theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organisms.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1210\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1210\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A semi-permeable lipid bilayer that separates the interior of all cells from their surroundings.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1198\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1198\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The jellylike material that makes up much of a cell inside the cell membrane, and, in eukaryotic cells, surrounds the nucleus. The organelles of eukaryotic cells, such as mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, and (in green plants) chloroplasts, are contained in the cytoplasm.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1241\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1241\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A large complex of RNA and protein which acts as the site of RNA translation, building proteins from amino acids using messenger RNA as a template.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1269\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1269\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A whip-like structure that allows a cell to move.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1858\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1858\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Tiny hairlike organelles, identical in structure to flagella, that line the surfaces of certain cells and beat in rhythmic waves, providing locomotion to ciliate protozoans and moving liquids along internal epithelial tissue in animals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_2191\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_2191\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Cells which lack membrane-bound structures, specifically a nucleus. Instead they generally have a single circular chromosome located in an area of the cell called the nucleoid.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1363\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1363\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A central organelle containing   hereditary material.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1333\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1333\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A complex network of interlinking protein filaments that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane, gives the cell its shape and help organize the cell's parts.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1267\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1267\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Its main function is to produce proteins. It is a portion of the endoplasmic reticulum which is studded with attached ribosomes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1251\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1251\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An organelle found in eukaryotic cells with the function of making cellular products such as hormones and lipids.  The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a part of the endoplasmic reticulum that does not have attached ribosomes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1208\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1208\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells made up of a series of flattened stacked pouches with the purpose of collecting and dispatching protein and lipid products received from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).  Also referred to as the Golgi complex or the Golgi body.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1378\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1378\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A structure within a cell, consisting of lipid bilayer. Vesicles form naturally during the processes of secretion, uptake and transport of materials within the plasma membrane.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1377\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1377\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells.  It's function is storage of substances and to maintain the rigidity of plant cells.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1248\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1248\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules located near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1318\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1318\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>a type of movement of substances across the cell membrane which does not require energy because the substances are moving with the concentration gradient (from high to low concentration).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1312\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1312\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1901\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1901\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1297\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1297\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The movement of water or other solvent through a plasma membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1317\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1317\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The passive movement of molecules across the cell membrane with the aid of a membrane protein.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1800\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1800\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An organism that produces complex organic compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) from simple substances present in its surroundings, generally using energy from light (photosynthesis) or inorganic chemical reactions (chemosynthesis).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1988\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1988\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An organism that cannot produce its own food, relying instead on the intake of nutrition from other sources of organic carbon, mainly plant or animal matter. In the food chain, heterotrophs are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, but not producers.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1191\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1191\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Glucose (also called dextrose) is a simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1306\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1306\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1328\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1328\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1969\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1969\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The metabolic pathway that converts glucose C\u2086H\u2081\u2082O\u2086, into pyruvate. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1274\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1274\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen. Although oxygen is not the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1466\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1466\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes. In biochemistry, it is narrowly defined as the extraction of energy from carbohydrates in the absence of oxygen.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1405\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1405\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as by-products.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1912\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1912\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>One of two tubes in the male reproductive system that joins the vas deferens with the urethra and carries semen during ejaculation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1287\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1287\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A cycle of growth and division that cells go through.  It includes interphase (G1, S, and G2) and the mitotic phase.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_273_1268\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_273_1268\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":103,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-273","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":175,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/273","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/103"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/273\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2545,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/273\/revisions\/2545"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/175"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/273\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=273"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=273"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=273"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/053humanbiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=273"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}