{"id":180,"date":"2020-02-25T23:15:51","date_gmt":"2020-02-26T04:15:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/advancedenglish\/chapter\/making-an-argument\/"},"modified":"2021-08-11T16:32:08","modified_gmt":"2021-08-11T20:32:08","slug":"making-an-argument","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/advancedenglish\/chapter\/making-an-argument\/","title":{"raw":"Making An Argument","rendered":"Making An Argument"},"content":{"raw":"

When people argue, they are engaged in conflict and it\u2019s usually not pretty. It sometimes appears that way because people resort to fallacious arguments or false statements, or they simply do not treat each other with respect. They get defensive, try to prove their own points, and fail to listen to each other.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

But this should not be what happens in persuasive argument. Instead, when you make an argument in a persuasive speech, you will want to present your position with logical points, supporting each point with appropriate sources. You will want to give your audience every reason to perceive you as an ethical and trustworthy speaker. Your audience will expect you to treat them with respect, and to present your argument in way that does not make them defensive. Contribute to your credibility by building sound arguments and using strategic arguments with skill and planning.<\/span><\/p>\r\nStephen Toulmin\u2019s (1958) rhetorical strategy focuses on three main elements, shown in Table 8.1 as claim, data, and warrant.\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
Rhetorical Strategy<\/caption>\r\n
Element<\/th>\r\nDescription<\/th>\r\nExample<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Claim<\/td>\r\nYour statement of belief or truth<\/td>\r\nIt is important to spay or neuter your pet.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Data<\/td>\r\nYour supporting reasons for the claim<\/td>\r\nMillions of unwanted pets are euthanized annually.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
Warrant<\/td>\r\nYou create the connection between the claim and the supporting reasons<\/td>\r\nPets that are spayed or neutered do not reproduce, preventing the production of unwanted animals.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n

This three-part rhetorical strategy is useful in that it makes the claim explicit, clearly illustrating the relationship between the claim and the data, and allows the listener to follow the speaker\u2019s reasoning. You may have a good idea or point, but your audience will be curious and want to know how you arrived at that claim or viewpoint. The warrant often addresses the inherent and often unspoken question, \u201cWhy is this data so important to your topic?\u201d and helps you illustrate relationships between information for your audience. This model can help you clearly articulate it for your audience.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Appealing to Emotions<\/h1>\r\n Emotions are a psychological and physical reaction, such as fear or anger, to stimuli that we experience as a feeling. Our feelings or emotions directly impact our own point of view and readiness to communicate, but also influence how, why, and when we say things. Emotions influence not only how you say what you say, but also how you hear and what you hear. At times, emotions can be challenging to control. Emotions will move your audience, and possibly even move you, to change or act in certain ways. <\/span>\r\n

\"A<\/p>\r\n

Be wary of overusing emotional appeals, or misusing emotional manipulation in presentations and communication. You may encounter emotional resistance from your audience. \u00a0Emotional resistance involves getting tired, often to the point of rejection, of hearing messages\u00a0that attempt to elicit an emotional response. Emotional appeals can wear out the audience\u2019s capacity to receive the message.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

The use of an emotional appeal may also impair your ability to write persuasively or effectively. Never use a personal story, or even a story of someone you do not know, if the inclusion of that story causes you to lose control. While it\u2019s important to discuss relevant and sometimes emotionally difficult topics, you need to assess your own relationship to the message. Your documents should not be an exercise in therapy and you will sacrifice ethos and credibility, even your effectiveness, if you become angry or distraught because you are really not ready to discuss an issue you\u2019ve selected.<\/span><\/p>\r\n

Now that you\u2019ve considered emotions and their role in a speech in general and a speech to persuade specifically, it\u2019s important to recognize the principles about emotions in communication that serve you well when speaking in public. DeVito (2003) offers five key principles to acknowledge the role emotions play in communication and offer guidelines for there expression.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Emotions Are Universal<\/h2>\r\n Emotions are a part of every conversation or interaction that you have. Whether or not you consciously experience them while communicating with yourself or others, they influence how you communicate. By recognizing that emotions are a component in all communication interactions, you can place emphasis on understanding both the content of the message and the emotions that influence how, why, and when the content is communicated.<\/span>\r\n

Expression of emotions is important, but requires the three Ts: tact, timing, and trust<\/span>. If you find you are upset and at risk of being less than diplomatic, or the timing is not right, or you are unsure about the level of trust, then consider whether you can effectively communicate your emotions. By considering these three Ts, you can help yourself express your emotions more effectively.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Emotions Are Communicated Verbally and Nonverbally<\/h2>\r\n You communicate emotions not only through your choice of words but also through the manner in which you say those words. The words themselves communicate part of your message, but the nonverbal cues, including inflection, timing, space, and paralanguage can modify or contradict your spoken message. Be aware that emotions are expressed in both ways and pay attention to how verbal and nonverbal messages reinforce and complement each other.<\/span>\r\n

Emotional Expression Can Be Good and Bad<\/h2>\r\n Expressing emotions can be a healthy activity for a relationship and build trust. It can also break down trust if expression is not combined with judgment. We\u2019re all different, and we all experience emotions, but how we express our emotions to ourselves and others can have a significant impact on our relationships. Expressing frustrations may help the audience realize your point of view and see things as they have never seen them before. However, expressing frustrations combined with blaming can generate defensiveness and decrease effective listening. When you\u2019re expressing yourself, consider the audience\u2019s point of view, be specific about your concerns, and emphasize that your relationship with your listeners is important to you.<\/span>\r\n

Emotions Are Often Contagious<\/h2>\r\n It is important to recognize that we influence each other with our emotions, positively and negatively. Your emotions as the speaker can be contagious, so use your enthusiasm to raise the level of interest in your topic. Conversely, you may be subject to \u201ccatching\u201d emotions from your audience.\r\n<\/span>\r\n

In summary, everyone experiences emotions, and as a persuasive speaker, you can choose how to express emotion and appeal to the audience\u2019s emotions.\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Elevator Speech<\/span><\/h1>\r\n

An elevator speech is to oral communication what a Twitter message (limited to 280 characters) is to written communication. An elevator speech is a presentation that persuades the listener in less than thirty seconds, or around a hundred words.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n

Creating an Elevator Speech<\/span><\/h2>\r\n

An elevator speech does not have to be a formal event, though it can be. An elevator speech is not a full sales pitch and should not get bloated with too much information. The idea is not to rattle off as much information as possible in a short time, nor to present a memorized thirty-second advertising message, but rather to give a relaxed and genuine \u201cnutshell\u201d summary of one main idea. The emphasis is on brevity, but a good elevator speech will address several key questions:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n