{"id":467,"date":"2021-07-23T09:19:51","date_gmt":"2021-07-23T13:19:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/chapter\/molecular-structure-and-polarity\/"},"modified":"2022-06-23T09:02:01","modified_gmt":"2022-06-23T13:02:01","slug":"molecular-structure-and-polarity","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/chapter\/molecular-structure-and-polarity\/","title":{"raw":"7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity","rendered":"7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the concepts of polar covalent bonds and molecular polarity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Assess the polarity of a molecule based on its bonding and structure<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp51102864\">Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and relative arrangements in space (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O\">(Figure)<\/a>). A <span data-type=\"term\">bond angle<\/span> is the angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in degrees. A <span data-type=\"term\">bond distance<\/span> (or bond length) is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms along the straight line joining the nuclei. Bond distances are measured in \u00c5ngstroms (1 \u00c5 = 10<sup>\u201310<\/sup> m) or picometers (1 pm = 10<sup>\u201312<\/sup> m, 100 pm = 1 \u00c5).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Bond distances (lengths) and angles are shown for the formaldehyde molecule, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp55258784\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O-1.jpg\" alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp391168\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>VSEPR Theory<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp36050992\"><strong>Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory)<\/strong> enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp46353584\">VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp122770240\">As a simple example of VSEPR theory, let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule. The Lewis structure of BeF<sub>2<\/sub> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\">(Figure)<\/a>) shows only two electron pairs around the central beryllium atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as far apart as possible, and the electrostatic repulsion between these regions of high electron density is reduced to a minimum when they are on opposite sides of the central atom. The bond angle is 180\u00b0 (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule adopts a linear structure in which the two bonds are as far apart as possible, on opposite sides of the Be atom.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp229524848\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp87297072\"><a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> illustrates this and other electron-pair geometries that minimize the repulsions among regions of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Two regions of electron density around a central atom in a molecule form a <strong>linear <\/strong>geometry; three regions form a <strong>trigonal planar<\/strong> geometry; four regions form a <strong>tetrahedral <\/strong>geometry; five regions form a <strong>trigonal bipyramidal <\/strong>geometry; and six regions form an <span data-type=\"term\">octahedral<\/span> geometry.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp73717728\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm5284928\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Electron-pair Geometry versus Molecular Geometry<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp238100128\">It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is <em data-effect=\"italics\">not<\/em> the same thing as its molecular geometry. The electron-pair geometries shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone pairs. Molecular geometry describes the location of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">atoms<\/em>, not the electrons.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm334496\">We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes <em data-effect=\"italics\">all<\/em> electron pairs the <strong>electron-pair geometry<\/strong>. The geometry that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the<strong> molecular geometry<\/strong>. The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular geometries when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp48943296\">For example, the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, which is the major component of natural gas, has four bonding pairs of electrons around the central carbon atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, as is the molecular geometry(<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4\">(Figure)<\/a>). On the other hand, the ammonia molecule, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, and this lone pair influences the molecular geometry of the molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The molecular geometry of the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, is shown with a tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms. VSEPR structures like this one are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedges represent bonds coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down into the plane.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp102024640\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry is determined from the electron-pair geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles because the lone pair takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller than 109.5\u00b0.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp50682928\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp38238416\">As seen in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>, small distortions from the ideal angles in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> can result from differences in repulsion between various regions of electron density. VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by postulating that lone pairs take up more room than bonding pairs.\u00a0 (This is because a bonding is simultaneously pulled toward two different atoms.)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp125916256\">In the ammonia molecule, the three hydrogen atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not arranged in a flat, trigonal planar molecular structure, but rather in a three-dimensional trigonal pyramid (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>) with the nitrogen atom at the apex and the three hydrogen atoms forming the base. The ideal bond angles in a trigonal pyramid are based on the tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. Again, there are slight deviations from the ideal because lone pairs occupy larger regions of space than do bonding electrons. The H\u2013N\u2013H bond angles in NH<sub>3<\/sub> are slightly smaller than the 109.5\u00b0 angle in a regular tetrahedron (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a>) because the lone pair takes up more space than the bonding pairs. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a> illustrates the ideal molecular structures, which are predicted based on the electron-pair geometries for various combinations of lone pairs and bonding pairs.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The molecular geometries are identical to the electron-pair geometries when there are no lone pairs present (first column). For a particular number of electron pairs (row), the molecular geometries for one or more lone pairs are determined based on modifications of the corresponding electron-pair geometry.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp63301888\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp3259504\">According to VSEPR theory, the terminal atom locations (Xs in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>) are equivalent within the linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron-pair geometries (the first three rows of the table). It does not matter which X is replaced with a lone pair because the molecules can be rotated to convert positions. For trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometries, however, there are two distinct X positions, as shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\">(Figure)<\/a>: an <strong>axial position<\/strong> (if we hold a model of a trigonal bipyramid by the two axial positions, we have an axis around which we can rotate the model) and an <strong>equatorial position<\/strong> (three positions form an equator around the middle of the molecule). As shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>, the axial position is surrounded by bond angles of 90\u00b0, whereas the equatorial position has more space available because of the 120\u00b0 bond angles. In a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry, lone pairs always occupy equatorial positions because these more spacious positions can more easily accommodate the larger lone pairs.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm50931488\">Theoretically, we can come up with three possible arrangements for the three bonds and two lone pairs for the ClF<sub>3<\/sub> molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\">(Figure)<\/a>). The stable structure is the one that puts the lone pairs in equatorial locations, giving a T-shaped molecular structure.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) In a trigonal bipyramid, the two axial positions are located directly across from one another, whereas the three equatorial positions are located in a triangular arrangement. (b\u2013d) The two lone pairs (red lines) in ClF<sub>3<\/sub> have several possible arrangements, but the T-shaped molecular structure (b) is the one actually observed, consistent with the larger lone pairs both occupying equatorial positions.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp53854176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq-1.jpg\" alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56476752\">When a central atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we have an octahedral electron-pair geometry. The two lone pairs are on opposite sides of the octahedron (180\u00b0 apart), giving a square planar molecular structure that minimizes lone pair-lone pair repulsions (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm759712\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Predicting Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Geometry<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp147829184\">The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular geometries:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-idp267826096\" type=\"1\">\r\n \t<li>Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>, first column).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp53389712\">The following examples illustrate the use of VSEPR theory to predict the molecular geometry of molecules or ions that have no lone pairs of electrons. In this case, the molecular geometry is identical to the electron pair geometry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm2891376\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp238154208\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: CO<sub>2<\/sub> and BCl<sub>3<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\r\nPredict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry for each of the following:\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55144288\">(a) carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, a molecule produced by the combustion of fossil fuels<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm8091088\">(b) boron trichloride, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, an important industrial chemical<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp64872464\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n(a) We write the Lewis structure of CO<sub>2<\/sub> as:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp65356192\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56144384\">This shows us two regions of high electron density around the carbon atom\u2014each double bond counts as one region, and there are no lone pairs on the carbon atom. Using VSEPR theory, we predict that the two regions of electron density arrange themselves on opposite sides of the central atom with a bond angle of 180\u00b0. The electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry are identical, and CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecules are linear.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp280648672\">(b) We write the Lewis structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> as:<\/p>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp62627904\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp34925552\">Thus we see that BCl<sub>3<\/sub> contains three bonds, and there are no lone pairs of electrons on boron. The arrangement of three regions of high electron density gives a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry. The B\u2013Cl bonds lie in a plane with 120\u00b0 angles between them. BCl<sub>3<\/sub> also has a trigonal planar molecular geometry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\"><span id=\"fs-idp108737552\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><img class=\"wp-image-1520 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6A-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"95\" height=\"92\" \/><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp67131872\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nCarbonate, CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2-<\/sup>, is a common polyatomic ion found in various materials from eggshells to antacids. What are the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of this polyatomic ion?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp125452800\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><img class=\"alignnone size-medium wp-image-1486 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-300x61.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"61\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp55819408\">Due to resonance, all three C\u2013O bonds are identical. Whether they are single, double, or an average of the two, each bond counts as one region of electron density. The electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar and the molecular geometry is trigonal planar.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp17356704\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp83628624\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Ammonium <\/strong><\/p>\r\nTwo of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, both used as fertilizers, contain the ammonium ion. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> cation.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp86467024\" style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nWe write the Lewis structure of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> as:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp83671296\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\"><img class=\"wp-image-1504 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6a.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"139\" height=\"138\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm9973280\">We can see that NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> contains four bonds from the nitrogen atom to hydrogen atoms and no lone pairs. We expect the four regions of high electron density to arrange themselves so that they point to the corners of a tetrahedron with the central nitrogen atom in the middle (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>). Therefore, the electron pair geometry of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> is tetrahedral, and the molecular geometry is also tetrahedral.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\"><\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp51778960\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign. This figure uses dashes and wedges to displays its three planes in a tetrahedral shape.\"><img class=\"wp-image-1505 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6b.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"151\" height=\"139\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp94577296\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nIdentify a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp57227744\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp18533456\">Any molecule with five electron pairs around the central atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal bipyramidal. PF<sub>5<\/sub> is a common example.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm16091952\">The next several examples illustrate the effect of lone pairs of electrons on molecular geometry.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm16663792\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm10296544\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom <\/strong><\/p>\r\nPredict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of a water molecule.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp10258608\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe Lewis structure of H<sub>2<\/sub>O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp166304416\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2O_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp35029328\">We predict that these four regions are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion, as indicated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>. Thus, the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular geometry is bent with an angle slightly less than 109.5\u00b0. (In fact, the bond angle is 104.5\u00b0.)<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-1507 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6c.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"194\" height=\"108\" \/>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp51567744\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe hydronium ion, H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, forms when acids are dissolved in water. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of this cation.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp47211728\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp103296688\">electron pair geometry: tetrahedral; molecular geometry: trigonal pyramidal<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp82124112\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54014736\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF<sub>4<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\r\nSulfur tetrafluoride, SF<sub>4<\/sub>, is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e., SF<sub>4<\/sub> is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of a SF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp95643040\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe Lewis structure of SF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair and four bonding pairs:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp33968176\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"wp-image-1508 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6d.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"179\" height=\"166\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp72937360\">We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry. To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions. The molecular geometry is seesaw.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\"><\/div>\r\n<div><img class=\"wp-image-1509 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6e.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"116\" height=\"143\" \/><\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp116937376\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a sulfur atom in the center of a six-sided bi-pyramidal shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at four corners of the pyramid shape and they are connected to the sulfur atom by single lines.\">\u00a0<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp24574032\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nPredict the electron pair geometry and molecular geometry for molecules of XeF<sub>2<\/sub>.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp54082656\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp90752208\">The electron-pair geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The molecular geometry is linear.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp47136656\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp125690208\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Geometry: XeF<sub>4<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\r\nOf all the noble gases, xenon is the most reactive, frequently reacting with elements such as oxygen and fluorine. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of the XeF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm15898032\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe Lewis structure of XeF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates six regions of high electron density around the xenon atom: two lone pairs and four bonds:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp19835824\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp60591280\">These six regions adopt an octahedral arrangement, which is the electron-pair geometry. To minimize repulsions, the lone pairs should be on opposite sides of the central atom. The five atoms are all in the same plane and have a square planar molecular geometry.<\/p>\r\n<img class=\"wp-image-1510 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6F.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"105\" height=\"104\" \/>\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp225615216\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nIn a certain molecule, the central atom has three lone pairs and two bonds. What will the electron pair geometry and molecular geometry be?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm25808\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp81639856\">electron pair geometry: trigonal bipyramidal; molecular geometry: linear<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp54051968\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Molecular Geometry for Multicenter Molecules<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp78438784\">When a molecule or polyatomic ion has only one central atom, the molecular geometry completely describes the shape of the molecule. Larger molecules do not have a single central atom, but are connected by a chain of interior atoms that each possess a \u201clocal\u201d geometry. The way these local geometries are oriented with respect to each other also influences the molecular shape, but such considerations are largely beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. For our purposes, we will only focus on determining the local geometries.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp116942080\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp73376736\"><strong>Predicting Structure in Multicenter Molecules:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe Lewis structure for the simplest amino acid, glycine, H<sub>2<\/sub>NCH<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>2<\/sub>H, is shown here. Predict the local geometry for the nitrogen atom, the two carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp113615744\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm8994208\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp21522704\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img class=\"scaled-down\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly3D_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15590912\">Consider each central atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idp8766640\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\r\n \t<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three regions of electron density; trigonal planar<\/li>\r\n \t<li>oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp86037232\">The local geometries:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idp18275136\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\r\n \t<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013three bonds, one lone pair; trigonal pyramidal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014four bonds, no lone pairs; tetrahedral<\/li>\r\n \t<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three bonds (double bond counts as one region of electron density), no lone pairs; trigonal planar<\/li>\r\n \t<li>oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014two bonds, two lone pairs; bent<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp7781728\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nAnother amino acid is alanine, which has the Lewis structure shown here. Predict the electron-pair geometry and local geometry of the nitrogen atom, the three carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with hydrogen attached:\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp248617216\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_ala_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm44767872\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp66198816\">electron-pair geometries: nitrogen\u2013\u2013tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; local geometries: nitrogen\u2014trigonal pyramidal; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014bent<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp90797184\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp159959216\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16MolecShape\">molecular shape simulator<\/a> lets you build various molecules and practice naming their electron-pair geometries and molecular structures.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp149289584\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moment<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp30351200\">As discussed previously, polar covalent bonds connect two atoms with differing electronegativities, leaving one atom with a partial positive charge (\u03b4+) and the other atom with a partial negative charge (\u03b4\u2013), as the electrons are pulled toward the more electronegative atom. This separation of charge gives rise to a <span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment<\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp33849296\">This bond dipole moment can be represented as a <span data-type=\"term\">vector<\/span>, a quantity having both direction and magnitude (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector\">(Figure)<\/a>). Dipole vectors are shown as arrows pointing along the bond from the less electronegative atom toward the more electronegative atom. A small plus sign is drawn on the less electronegative end to indicate the partially positive end of the bond. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) There is a small difference in electronegativity between C and H, represented as a short vector. (b) The electronegativity difference between B and F is much larger, so the vector representing the bond moment is much longer.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp53563840\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp52773168\">A whole molecule may also have a separation of charge, depending on its molecular structure and the polarity of each of its bonds. If such a charge separation exists, the molecule is said to be a <strong>polar molecule<\/strong> (or dipole); otherwise the molecule is said to be nonpolar. The <span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment<\/span> measures the extent of net charge separation in the molecule as a whole. We determine the dipole moment by adding the bond moments in three-dimensional space, taking into account the molecular shape.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm10056464\">For diatomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines the molecular polarity. Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as Br<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub> have no difference in electronegativity, so their dipole moment is zero. For heteronuclear molecules such as CO, there is a small dipole moment. For HF, there is a larger dipole moment because there is a larger difference in electronegativity.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp218363312\">When a molecule contains more than one bond, the geometry must be taken into account. If the bonds in a molecule are arranged such that their bond dipole moments cancel (vector sum equals zero), then the molecule is nonpolar. This is the situation in CO<sub>2<\/sub> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\">(Figure)<\/a>). Each of the bonds is polar, but the molecule as a whole is nonpolar. From the Lewis structure, and using VSEPR theory, we determine that the CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is linear with polar C=O bonds on opposite sides of the carbon atom. The bond dipole moments cancel because they are pointed in opposite directions. In the case of the water molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\">(Figure)<\/a>), the Lewis structure again shows that there are two bonds to a central atom, and the electronegativity difference again shows that each of these bonds has a nonzero bond dipole moment. In this case, however, the molecular structure is bent because of the lone pairs on O, and the two bond moments do not cancel. Therefore, water does have a net dipole moment and is a polar molecule (dipole).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The overall dipole moment of a molecule depends on the individual bond dipole moments and how they are arranged. (a) Each CO bond has a bond dipole moment, but they point in opposite directions so that the net CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is nonpolar. (b) In contrast, water is polar because the OH bond moments do not cancel out.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp102085104\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp54246320\">The OCS molecule has a structure similar to CO<sub>2<\/sub>, but a sulfur atom has replaced one of the oxygen atoms. To determine if this molecule is polar, we draw the molecular structure. VSEPR theory predicts a linear molecule:<\/p>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp52090304\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_OSC_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp225382864\">The C-O bond is considerably polar. Although C and S have very similar electronegativity values, S is slightly more electronegative than C, and so the C-S bond is just slightly polar. Because oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, the oxygen end of the molecule is the negative end.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp66532464\">Chloromethane, CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl, is a tetrahedral molecule with three slightly polar C-H bonds and a more polar C-Cl bond. The relative electronegativities of the bonded atoms is H &lt; C &lt; Cl, and so the bond moments all point toward the Cl end of the molecule and sum to yield a considerable dipole moment (the molecules are relatively polar).<\/p>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idm3023712\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CHCl3_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp214036816\">For molecules of high symmetry such as BF<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal planar), CH<sub>4<\/sub> (tetrahedral), PF<sub>5<\/sub> (trigonal bipymidal), and SF<sub>6<\/sub> (octahedral), all the bonds are of identical polarity (same bond moment) and they are oriented in geometries that yield nonpolar molecules (dipole moment is zero). Molecules of less geometric symmetry, however, may be polar even when all bond moments are identical. For these molecules, the directions of the equal bond moments are such that they sum to give a nonzero dipole moment and a polar molecule. Examples of such molecules include hydrogen sulfide, H<sub>2<\/sub>S (nonlinear), and ammonia, NH<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal pyramidal).<\/p>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp35612832\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows a sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Near the sulfur is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. Near the nitrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign.\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-1513 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-300x91.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"91\" \/><\/span>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp51111376\">To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-idp94928768\" type=\"1\">\r\n \t<li>Contain at least one polar covalent bond.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment does not cancel.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp83627232\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Properties of Polar Molecules<\/strong><\/h4>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp272047168\">Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield\">(Figure)<\/a>). We can use an electrically charged object to attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) Molecules are always randomly distributed in the liquid state in the absence of an electric field. (b) When an electric field is applied, polar molecules like HF will align to the dipoles with the field direction.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp19283840\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, gray electrodes. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram also shows two vertical gray electrodes, the left labeled as negative and the right labeled as positive. The space between is yellow. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the negative electrode.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, gray electrodes. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram also shows two vertical gray electrodes, the left labeled as negative and the right labeled as positive. The space between is yellow. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the negative electrode.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp56552448\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp103820464\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16MolecPolarity\">molecule polarity simulation<\/a> provides many ways to explore dipole moments of bonds and molecules.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp238464336\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp12666320\">VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Molecular geometry, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom. A dipole moment measures a separation of charge. For one bond, the bond dipole moment is determined by the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms. For a molecule, the overall dipole moment is determined by both the individual bond moments and how these dipoles are arranged in the molecular structure. Polar molecules (those with an appreciable dipole moment) interact with electric fields, whereas nonpolar molecules do not.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp125299408\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp37961056\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp37961312\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm5201232\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"glossary-title\"><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp280671424\">\r\n \t<dt>axial position<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp166200672\">location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180\u00b0 angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp51366688\"><\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp60998304\">\r\n \t<dt>bond dipole moment<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp147297136\">separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp12081312\">\r\n \t<dt>dipole moment<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp154242144\">property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp86864304\">\r\n \t<dt>electron-pair geometry<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp53104336\">arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp113684160\">\r\n \t<dt>equatorial position<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp88927920\">one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120\u00b0 angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp35872064\">\r\n \t<dt>linear<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp85720080\">shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp108813632\">\r\n \t<dt>molecular geometry<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp125544976\">geometry that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp80913744\">\r\n \t<dt>octahedral<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp116870752\">shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp57075984\">\r\n \t<dt>polar molecule<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp239129232\">(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp51917808\">\r\n \t<dt>tetrahedral<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp124673408\">shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp124673792\">\r\n \t<dt>trigonal bipyramidal<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp81671808\">shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp36467056\">\r\n \t<dt>trigonal planar<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp132409040\">shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp27828880\">\r\n \t<dt>valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp16746272\">theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Predict the structures of small molecules using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory<\/li>\n<li>Explain the concepts of polar covalent bonds and molecular polarity<\/li>\n<li>Assess the polarity of a molecule based on its bonding and structure<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp51102864\">Thus far, we have used two-dimensional Lewis structures to represent molecules. However, molecular structure is actually three-dimensional, and it is important to be able to describe molecular bonds in terms of their distances, angles, and relative arrangements in space (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O\">(Figure)<\/a>). A <span data-type=\"term\">bond angle<\/span> is the angle between any two bonds that include a common atom, usually measured in degrees. A <span data-type=\"term\">bond distance<\/span> (or bond length) is the distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms along the straight line joining the nuclei. Bond distances are measured in \u00c5ngstroms (1 \u00c5 = 10<sup>\u201310<\/sup> m) or picometers (1 pm = 10<sup>\u201312<\/sup> m, 100 pm = 1 \u00c5).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Bond distances (lengths) and angles are shown for the formaldehyde molecule, H<sub>2<\/sub>CO.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp55258784\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH2O-1.jpg\" alt=\"A pair of images are shown. The left image shows a carbon atom with three atoms bonded in a triangular arrangement around it. There are two hydrogen atoms bonded on the left side of the carbon and the angle between them is labeled, \u201c118 degrees\u201d and, \u201cBond angle.\u201d The carbon is also double bonded to an oxygen atom. The double bond is shaded and there is a bracket which labels the bond, \u201cBond length ( angstrom ), ( center to center ),\u201d and, \u201c1.21 angstrom.\u201d The right image shows a ball-and-stick model of the same elements. The hydrogen atoms are white, the carbon atom is black, and the oxygen atom is red.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp391168\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>VSEPR Theory<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp36050992\"><strong>Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory)<\/strong> enables us to predict the molecular structure, including approximate bond angles around a central atom, of a molecule from an examination of the number of bonds and lone electron pairs in its Lewis structure. The VSEPR model assumes that electron pairs in the valence shell of a central atom will adopt an arrangement that minimizes repulsions between these electron pairs by maximizing the distance between them. The electrons in the valence shell of a central atom form either bonding pairs of electrons, located primarily between bonded atoms, or lone pairs. The electrostatic repulsion of these electrons is reduced when the various regions of high electron density assume positions as far from each other as possible.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp46353584\">VSEPR theory predicts the arrangement of electron pairs around each central atom and, usually, the correct arrangement of atoms in a molecule. We should understand, however, that the theory only considers electron-pair repulsions. Other interactions, such as nuclear-nuclear repulsions and nuclear-electron attractions, are also involved in the final arrangement that atoms adopt in a particular molecular structure.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp122770240\">As a simple example of VSEPR theory, let us predict the structure of a gaseous BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule. The Lewis structure of BeF<sub>2<\/sub> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\">(Figure)<\/a>) shows only two electron pairs around the central beryllium atom. With two bonds and no lone pairs of electrons on the central atom, the bonds are as far apart as possible, and the electrostatic repulsion between these regions of high electron density is reduced to a minimum when they are on opposite sides of the central atom. The bond angle is 180\u00b0 (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The BeF<sub>2<\/sub> molecule adopts a linear structure in which the two bonds are as far apart as possible, on opposite sides of the Be atom.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp229524848\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BeF2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure is shown. A fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons is single bonded to a beryllium atom which is single bonded to a fluorine atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The angle of the bonds between the two fluorine atoms and the beryllium atom is labeled, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp87297072\"><a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> illustrates this and other electron-pair geometries that minimize the repulsions among regions of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Two regions of electron density around a central atom in a molecule form a <strong>linear <\/strong>geometry; three regions form a <strong>trigonal planar<\/strong> geometry; four regions form a <strong>tetrahedral <\/strong>geometry; five regions form a <strong>trigonal bipyramidal <\/strong>geometry; and six regions form an <span data-type=\"term\">octahedral<\/span> geometry.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The basic electron-pair geometries predicted by VSEPR theory maximize the space around any region of electron density (bonds or lone pairs).<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp73717728\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A table with four rows and six columns is shown. The header column contains the phrases, \u201cNumber of regions,\u201d \u201cSpatial arrangement,\u201d \u201cWedge\/dash Notation,\u201d and \u201cElectron pair Geometry.\u201d The first row reads: \u201cTwo regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs )\u201d, \u201cThree regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFour regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d \u201cFive regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ),\u201d and \u201cSix regions of high electron density ( bonds and\/or unshared pairs ).\u201d The second row shows diagrams of orbitals. The first image shows two oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 180 degrees. The second image shows three oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 120 degrees. The third image shows four oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 109.5 degrees. The fourth image shows five oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 and 120 degrees. The fifth image shows six oval-shaped orbs with an arrow indicating an angle of 90 degrees. The third row contains Lewis structures. The first structure shows a beryllium atom single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The second structure shows a boron atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. The third structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The fourth structure shows a phosphorus atom single bonded to five fluorine atoms. The fifth structure shows a sulfur atom single bonded to six fluorine atoms. The fourth row contains the phrases \u201cLinear; 180 degree angle,\u201d Trigonal Planar; all angles 120 degrees,\u201d \u201cTetrahedral; all angles 109.5 degrees,\u201d \u201cTrigonal bipyramidal; angles of 90 degrees and 120 degrees. An attached atom may be equatorial, ( in the plane of the triangle ), or axial, ( above the plane of the triangle ),\u201d and \u201cOctahedral; 90 degrees or 180 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm5284928\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Electron-pair Geometry versus Molecular Geometry<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp238100128\">It is important to note that electron-pair geometry around a central atom is <em data-effect=\"italics\">not<\/em> the same thing as its molecular geometry. The electron-pair geometries shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> describe all regions where electrons are located, bonds as well as lone pairs. Molecular geometry describes the location of the <em data-effect=\"italics\">atoms<\/em>, not the electrons.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm334496\">We differentiate between these two situations by naming the geometry that includes <em data-effect=\"italics\">all<\/em> electron pairs the <strong>electron-pair geometry<\/strong>. The geometry that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule is called the<strong> molecular geometry<\/strong>. The electron-pair geometries will be the same as the molecular geometries when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom, but they will be different when there are lone pairs present on the central atom.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp48943296\">For example, the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, which is the major component of natural gas, has four bonding pairs of electrons around the central carbon atom; the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral, as is the molecular geometry(<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4\">(Figure)<\/a>). On the other hand, the ammonia molecule, NH<sub>3<\/sub>, also has four electron pairs associated with the nitrogen atom, and thus has a tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. One of these regions, however, is a lone pair, and this lone pair influences the molecular geometry of the molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The molecular geometry of the methane molecule, CH<sub>4<\/sub>, is shown with a tetrahedral arrangement of the hydrogen atoms. VSEPR structures like this one are often drawn using the wedge and dash notation, in which solid lines represent bonds in the plane of the page, solid wedges represent bonds coming up out of the plane, and dashed lines represent bonds going down into the plane.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp102024640\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CH4-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. This structure uses wedges and dashes to give it a three dimensional appearance.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) The electron-pair geometry for the ammonia molecule is tetrahedral with one lone pair and three single bonds. (b) The trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry is determined from the electron-pair geometry. (c) The actual bond angles deviate slightly from the idealized angles because the lone pair takes up a larger region of space than do the single bonds, causing the HNH angle to be slightly smaller than 109.5\u00b0.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp50682928\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc.\u201d Image a shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. There are four oval-shaped orbs that surround each hydrogen and one facing away from the rest of the molecule. These orbs are located in a tetrahedral arrangement. Image b shows a ball-and-stick model of the nitrogen single bonded to the three hydrogen atoms. Image c is the same as image a, but there are four curved, double headed arrows that circle the molecule and are labeled, \u201c106.8 degrees.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp38238416\">As seen in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>, small distortions from the ideal angles in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a> can result from differences in repulsion between various regions of electron density. VSEPR theory predicts these distortions by postulating that lone pairs take up more room than bonding pairs.\u00a0 (This is because a bonding is simultaneously pulled toward two different atoms.)<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp125916256\">In the ammonia molecule, the three hydrogen atoms attached to the central nitrogen are not arranged in a flat, trigonal planar molecular structure, but rather in a three-dimensional trigonal pyramid (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_NH3\">(Figure)<\/a>) with the nitrogen atom at the apex and the three hydrogen atoms forming the base. The ideal bond angles in a trigonal pyramid are based on the tetrahedral electron-pair geometry. Again, there are slight deviations from the ideal because lone pairs occupy larger regions of space than do bonding electrons. The H\u2013N\u2013H bond angles in NH<sub>3<\/sub> are slightly smaller than the 109.5\u00b0 angle in a regular tetrahedron (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Egeom\">(Figure)<\/a>) because the lone pair takes up more space than the bonding pairs. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a> illustrates the ideal molecular structures, which are predicted based on the electron-pair geometries for various combinations of lone pairs and bonding pairs.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The molecular geometries are identical to the electron-pair geometries when there are no lone pairs present (first column). For a particular number of electron pairs (row), the molecular geometries for one or more lone pairs are determined based on modifications of the corresponding electron-pair geometry.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp63301888\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A table is shown that is comprised of six rows and six columns. The header row reads: \u201cNumber of Electron Pairs,\u201d \u201cElectron pair geometries; 0 lone pair,\u201d \u201c1 lone pair,\u201d \u201c2 lone pairs,\u201d \u201c3 lone pairs,\u201d and \u201c4 lone pairs.\u201d The first column contains the numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The first space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side. The angle of the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The second space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on three sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal planar.\u201d The third space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X four times. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTetrahedral.\u201d The fourth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values \u201c90 and 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal bipyramid.\u201d The fifth space in the second column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on six sides. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cOctahedral.\u201d The first space in the third column is empty while the second contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has a lone pair of electrons. The angle between the bonds is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The third space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to a lone pair of electrons. It is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cTrigonal pyramid.\u201d The fourth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the values, \u201cless than 90 and less than 120 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSawhorse or seesaw.\u201d The fifth space in the third column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on five sides and has a lone pair of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare pyramidal.\u201d The first and second spaces in the fourth column are empty while the third contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than less than 109 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cBent or angular.\u201d The fourth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The fifth space in the fourth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on four sides and has two lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cSquare planar.\u201d The first, second and third spaces in the fifth column are empty while the fourth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d The fifth space in the fifth column contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X three times and to three lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value, \u201cless than 90 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cT - shape.\u201d The first, second, third, and fourth spaces in the sixth column are empty while the fifth contains a structure in which the letter E is single bonded to the letter X on each side and has four lone pairs of electrons. The bond angle is labeled with a curved, double headed arrow and the value \u201c180 degrees.\u201d The structure is labeled, \u201cLinear.\u201d All the structures use wedges and dashes to give them three dimensional appearances.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp3259504\">According to VSEPR theory, the terminal atom locations (Xs in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>) are equivalent within the linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral electron-pair geometries (the first three rows of the table). It does not matter which X is replaced with a lone pair because the molecules can be rotated to convert positions. For trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometries, however, there are two distinct X positions, as shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\">(Figure)<\/a>: an <strong>axial position<\/strong> (if we hold a model of a trigonal bipyramid by the two axial positions, we have an axis around which we can rotate the model) and an <strong>equatorial position<\/strong> (three positions form an equator around the middle of the molecule). As shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>, the axial position is surrounded by bond angles of 90\u00b0, whereas the equatorial position has more space available because of the 120\u00b0 bond angles. In a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry, lone pairs always occupy equatorial positions because these more spacious positions can more easily accommodate the larger lone pairs.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm50931488\">Theoretically, we can come up with three possible arrangements for the three bonds and two lone pairs for the ClF<sub>3<\/sub> molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\">(Figure)<\/a>). The stable structure is the one that puts the lone pairs in equatorial locations, giving a T-shaped molecular structure.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) In a trigonal bipyramid, the two axial positions are located directly across from one another, whereas the three equatorial positions are located in a triangular arrangement. (b\u2013d) The two lone pairs (red lines) in ClF<sub>3<\/sub> have several possible arrangements, but the T-shaped molecular structure (b) is the one actually observed, consistent with the larger lone pairs both occupying equatorial positions.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp53854176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Axeq-1.jpg\" alt=\"Four sets of images are shown and labeled, \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d \u201cc,\u201d and \u201cd.\u201d Each image is separated by a dashed vertical line. Image a shows a six-faced, bi-pyramidal structure where the central vertical axis is labeled, \u201cAxial,\u201d and the horizontal plane is labeled, \u201cEquatorial.\u201d Image b shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms on the upper and lower ends, and one fluorine in the left horizontal position. Image c shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center and three fluorine atoms in each horizontal position. Image d shows a pair of diagrams in the same shape as image a, but in these diagrams, the left has a chlorine atom in the center while the right has a chlorine atom in the center, two fluorine atoms in the horizontal positions, and one in the axial bottom position.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56476752\">When a central atom has two lone electron pairs and four bonding regions, we have an octahedral electron-pair geometry. The two lone pairs are on opposite sides of the octahedron (180\u00b0 apart), giving a square planar molecular structure that minimizes lone pair-lone pair repulsions (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm759712\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Predicting Electron Pair Geometry and Molecular Geometry<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp147829184\">The following procedure uses VSEPR theory to determine the electron pair geometries and the molecular geometries:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-idp267826096\" type=\"1\">\n<li>Draw the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion.<\/li>\n<li>Count the number of regions of electron density (lone pairs and bonds) around the central atom. A single, double, or triple bond counts as one region of electron density.<\/li>\n<li>Identify the electron-pair geometry based on the number of regions of electron density: linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>, first column).<\/li>\n<li>Use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p id=\"fs-idp53389712\">The following examples illustrate the use of VSEPR theory to predict the molecular geometry of molecules or ions that have no lone pairs of electrons. In this case, the molecular geometry is identical to the electron pair geometry.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm2891376\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp238154208\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: CO<sub>2<\/sub> and BCl<sub>3<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry for each of the following:<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55144288\">(a) carbon dioxide, CO<sub>2<\/sub>, a molecule produced by the combustion of fossil fuels<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm8091088\">(b) boron trichloride, BCl<sub>3<\/sub>, an important industrial chemical<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp64872464\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>(a) We write the Lewis structure of CO<sub>2<\/sub> as:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp65356192\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure shows a carbon atom double bonded on both the left and right sides to oxygen atoms that each have two lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56144384\">This shows us two regions of high electron density around the carbon atom\u2014each double bond counts as one region, and there are no lone pairs on the carbon atom. Using VSEPR theory, we predict that the two regions of electron density arrange themselves on opposite sides of the central atom with a bond angle of 180\u00b0. The electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry are identical, and CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecules are linear.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp280648672\">(b) We write the Lewis structure of BCl<sub>3<\/sub> as:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp62627904\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp34925552\">Thus we see that BCl<sub>3<\/sub> contains three bonds, and there are no lone pairs of electrons on boron. The arrangement of three regions of high electron density gives a trigonal planar electron-pair geometry. The B\u2013Cl bonds lie in a plane with 120\u00b0 angles between them. BCl<sub>3<\/sub> also has a trigonal planar molecular geometry.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BCl3mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\"><span id=\"fs-idp108737552\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a boron atom that is single bonded to three chlorine atoms, each of which is oriented in the same flat plane. This figure uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1520 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6A-1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"95\" height=\"92\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6A-1.png 194w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6A-1-65x63.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 95px) 100vw, 95px\" \/><\/span><\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp67131872\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Carbonate, CO<sub>3<\/sub><sup>2-<\/sup>, is a common polyatomic ion found in various materials from eggshells to antacids. What are the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of this polyatomic ion?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp125452800\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"title\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-medium wp-image-1486 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-300x61.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"61\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-300x61.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-768x155.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-65x13.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-225x45.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F-350x71.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.4F.png 980w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp55819408\">Due to resonance, all three C\u2013O bonds are identical. Whether they are single, double, or an average of the two, each bond counts as one region of electron density. The electron-pair geometry is trigonal planar and the molecular geometry is trigonal planar.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp17356704\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp83628624\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Ammonium <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Two of the top 50 chemicals produced in the United States, ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, both used as fertilizers, contain the ammonium ion. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular structure of the NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> cation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp86467024\" style=\"text-align: left\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>We write the Lewis structure of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> as:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp83671296\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1504 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6a.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"139\" height=\"138\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6a.png 201w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6a-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6a-65x64.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 139px) 100vw, 139px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm9973280\">We can see that NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> contains four bonds from the nitrogen atom to hydrogen atoms and no lone pairs. We expect the four regions of high electron density to arrange themselves so that they point to the corners of a tetrahedron with the central nitrogen atom in the middle (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>). Therefore, the electron pair geometry of NH<sub>4<\/sub><sup>+<\/sup> is tetrahedral, and the molecular geometry is also tetrahedral.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_NH4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\"><\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp51778960\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom that is single bonded to four hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets and has a superscripted positive sign. This figure uses dashes and wedges to displays its three planes in a tetrahedral shape.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1505 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6b.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"151\" height=\"139\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6b.png 187w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6b-65x60.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 151px) 100vw, 151px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp94577296\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Identify a molecule with trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp57227744\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp18533456\">Any molecule with five electron pairs around the central atoms including no lone pairs will be trigonal bipyramidal. PF<sub>5<\/sub> is a common example.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm16091952\">The next several examples illustrate the effect of lone pairs of electrons on molecular geometry.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm16663792\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm10296544\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: Lone Pairs on the Central Atom <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of a water molecule.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp10258608\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Lewis structure of H<sub>2<\/sub>O indicates that there are four regions of high electron density around the oxygen atom: two lone pairs and two chemical bonds:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp166304416\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_H2O_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp35029328\">We predict that these four regions are arranged in a tetrahedral fashion, as indicated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_molgeom\">(Figure)<\/a>. Thus, the electron-pair geometry is tetrahedral and the molecular geometry is bent with an angle slightly less than 109.5\u00b0. (In fact, the bond angle is 104.5\u00b0.)<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-full wp-image-1507 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6c.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"194\" height=\"108\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6c.png 194w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6c-65x36.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 194px) 100vw, 194px\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp51567744\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The hydronium ion, H<sub>3<\/sub>O<sup>+<\/sup>, forms when acids are dissolved in water. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of this cation.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp47211728\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp103296688\">electron pair geometry: tetrahedral; molecular geometry: trigonal pyramidal<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp82124112\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp54014736\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Structure: SF<sub>4<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Sulfur tetrafluoride, SF<sub>4<\/sub>, is extremely valuable for the preparation of fluorine-containing compounds used as herbicides (i.e., SF<sub>4<\/sub> is used as a fluorinating agent). Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of a SF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp95643040\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Lewis structure of SF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates five regions of electron density around the sulfur atom: one lone pair and four bonding pairs:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp33968176\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis diagram depicts a sulfur atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1508 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6d.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"179\" height=\"166\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6d.png 253w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6d-65x60.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6d-225x209.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 179px) 100vw, 179px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp72937360\">We expect these five regions to adopt a trigonal bipyramidal electron-pair geometry. To minimize lone pair repulsions, the lone pair occupies one of the equatorial positions. The molecular geometry is seesaw.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_SF4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\"><\/div>\n<div><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1509 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6e.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"116\" height=\"143\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6e.png 158w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6e-65x80.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 116px) 100vw, 116px\" \/><\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp116937376\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a sulfur atom in the center of a six-sided bi-pyramidal shape. Diagram b shows the same image as diagram a, but this time there are fluorine atoms located at four corners of the pyramid shape and they are connected to the sulfur atom by single lines.\">\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp24574032\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Predict the electron pair geometry and molecular geometry for molecules of XeF<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp54082656\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp90752208\">The electron-pair geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The molecular geometry is linear.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp47136656\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp125690208\"><strong>Predicting Electron-pair Geometry and Molecular Geometry: XeF<sub>4<\/sub> <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Of all the noble gases, xenon is the most reactive, frequently reacting with elements such as oxygen and fluorine. Predict the electron-pair geometry and molecular geometry of the XeF<sub>4<\/sub> molecule.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm15898032\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Lewis structure of XeF<sub>4<\/sub> indicates six regions of high electron density around the xenon atom: two lone pairs and four bonds:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp19835824\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a xenon atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to four fluorine atoms, each with three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp60591280\">These six regions adopt an octahedral arrangement, which is the electron-pair geometry. To minimize repulsions, the lone pairs should be on opposite sides of the central atom. The five atoms are all in the same plane and have a square planar molecular geometry.<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1510 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6F.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"105\" height=\"104\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6F.png 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6F-65x65.png 65w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 105px) 100vw, 105px\" \/><\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_XeF4mol\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp225615216\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In a certain molecule, the central atom has three lone pairs and two bonds. What will the electron pair geometry and molecular geometry be?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm25808\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp81639856\">electron pair geometry: trigonal bipyramidal; molecular geometry: linear<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp54051968\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Molecular Geometry for Multicenter Molecules<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp78438784\">When a molecule or polyatomic ion has only one central atom, the molecular geometry completely describes the shape of the molecule. Larger molecules do not have a single central atom, but are connected by a chain of interior atoms that each possess a \u201clocal\u201d geometry. The way these local geometries are oriented with respect to each other also influences the molecular shape, but such considerations are largely beyond the scope of this introductory discussion. For our purposes, we will only focus on determining the local geometries.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp116942080\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp73376736\"><strong>Predicting Structure in Multicenter Molecules:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The Lewis structure for the simplest amino acid, glycine, H<sub>2<\/sub>NCH<sub>2<\/sub>CO<sub>2<\/sub>H, is shown here. Predict the local geometry for the nitrogen atom, the two carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with a hydrogen atom attached:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp113615744\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm8994208\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp21522704\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"scaled-down\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_gly3D_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom. The atoms described are drawn with bonds that indicate a three-dimensional, tetrahedral shape around the nitrogen atom. The carbon is, in turn, single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and another carbon atom, and again, a tetrahedral, three dimensional configuration is indicated by the types of bonds. This second carbon atom is double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15590912\">Consider each central atom independently. The electron-pair geometries:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-idp8766640\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\n<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2013\u2013four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three regions of electron density; trigonal planar<\/li>\n<li>oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014four regions of electron density; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p id=\"fs-idp86037232\">The local geometries:<\/p>\n<ul id=\"fs-idp18275136\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\n<li>nitrogen\u2013\u2013three bonds, one lone pair; trigonal pyramidal<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014four bonds, no lone pairs; tetrahedral<\/li>\n<li>carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014three bonds (double bond counts as one region of electron density), no lone pairs; trigonal planar<\/li>\n<li>oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014two bonds, two lone pairs; bent<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p id=\"fs-idp7781728\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Another amino acid is alanine, which has the Lewis structure shown here. Predict the electron-pair geometry and local geometry of the nitrogen atom, the three carbon atoms, and the oxygen atom with hydrogen attached:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp248617216\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_ala_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Lewis structure depicts a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons that is single bonded to two hydrogen atoms and a carbon atom, which is, in turn, single bonded to a hydrogen atom, a methyl group and another carbon atom. This carbon atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen that has two lone pairs of electrons and a single bond to a hydrogen atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm44767872\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp66198816\">electron-pair geometries: nitrogen\u2013\u2013tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; local geometries: nitrogen\u2014trigonal pyramidal; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>H<sub>3<\/sub>)\u2014tetrahedral; carbon (<u data-effect=\"underline\">C<\/u>O<sub>2<\/sub>)\u2014trigonal planar; oxygen (<u data-effect=\"underline\">O<\/u>H)\u2014bent<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp90797184\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp159959216\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16MolecShape\">molecular shape simulator<\/a> lets you build various molecules and practice naming their electron-pair geometries and molecular structures.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp149289584\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moment<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp30351200\">As discussed previously, polar covalent bonds connect two atoms with differing electronegativities, leaving one atom with a partial positive charge (\u03b4+) and the other atom with a partial negative charge (\u03b4\u2013), as the electrons are pulled toward the more electronegative atom. This separation of charge gives rise to a <span data-type=\"term\">bond dipole moment<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp33849296\">This bond dipole moment can be represented as a <span data-type=\"term\">vector<\/span>, a quantity having both direction and magnitude (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector\">(Figure)<\/a>). Dipole vectors are shown as arrows pointing along the bond from the less electronegative atom toward the more electronegative atom. A small plus sign is drawn on the less electronegative end to indicate the partially positive end of the bond. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) There is a small difference in electronegativity between C and H, represented as a short vector. (b) The electronegativity difference between B and F is much larger, so the vector representing the bond moment is much longer.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp53563840\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_BondVector-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cC,\u201d a left-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cH.\u201d Image b shows a large sphere labeled, \u201cB,\u201d a right-facing arrow with a crossed end, and a smaller sphere labeled \u201cF.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp52773168\">A whole molecule may also have a separation of charge, depending on its molecular structure and the polarity of each of its bonds. If such a charge separation exists, the molecule is said to be a <strong>polar molecule<\/strong> (or dipole); otherwise the molecule is said to be nonpolar. The <span data-type=\"term\">dipole moment<\/span> measures the extent of net charge separation in the molecule as a whole. We determine the dipole moment by adding the bond moments in three-dimensional space, taking into account the molecular shape.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm10056464\">For diatomic molecules, there is only one bond, so its bond dipole moment determines the molecular polarity. Homonuclear diatomic molecules such as Br<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub> have no difference in electronegativity, so their dipole moment is zero. For heteronuclear molecules such as CO, there is a small dipole moment. For HF, there is a larger dipole moment because there is a larger difference in electronegativity.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp218363312\">When a molecule contains more than one bond, the geometry must be taken into account. If the bonds in a molecule are arranged such that their bond dipole moments cancel (vector sum equals zero), then the molecule is nonpolar. This is the situation in CO<sub>2<\/sub> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\">(Figure)<\/a>). Each of the bonds is polar, but the molecule as a whole is nonpolar. From the Lewis structure, and using VSEPR theory, we determine that the CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is linear with polar C=O bonds on opposite sides of the carbon atom. The bond dipole moments cancel because they are pointed in opposite directions. In the case of the water molecule (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\">(Figure)<\/a>), the Lewis structure again shows that there are two bonds to a central atom, and the electronegativity difference again shows that each of these bonds has a nonzero bond dipole moment. In this case, however, the molecular structure is bent because of the lone pairs on O, and the two bond moments do not cancel. Therefore, water does have a net dipole moment and is a polar molecule (dipole).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The overall dipole moment of a molecule depends on the individual bond dipole moments and how they are arranged. (a) Each CO bond has a bond dipole moment, but they point in opposite directions so that the net CO<sub>2<\/sub> molecule is nonpolar. (b) In contrast, water is polar because the OH bond moments do not cancel out.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp102085104\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CO2H2Odip-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two images are shown and labeled, \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Image a shows a carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms in a ball-and-stick representation. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment equals 0.\u201d Image b shows an oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms in a downward-facing v-shaped arrangement. An upward-facing, vertical arrow is drawn below the molecule while two upward and inward facing arrows are drawn above the molecule. The upper arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d while the image is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp54246320\">The OCS molecule has a structure similar to CO<sub>2<\/sub>, but a sulfur atom has replaced one of the oxygen atoms. To determine if this molecule is polar, we draw the molecular structure. VSEPR theory predicts a linear molecule:<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp52090304\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_OSC_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom double bonded to a sulfur atom and an oxygen atom which are arranged in a horizontal plane. Two arrows face away from the center of the molecule in opposite directions and are drawn horizontally like the molecule. The left-facing arrow is larger than the right-facing arrow. These arrows are labeled, \u201cBond moments,\u201d and a left-facing arrow below the molecule is labeled, \u201cOverall dipole moment.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp225382864\">The C-O bond is considerably polar. Although C and S have very similar electronegativity values, S is slightly more electronegative than C, and so the C-S bond is just slightly polar. Because oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, the oxygen end of the molecule is the negative end.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp66532464\">Chloromethane, CH<sub>3<\/sub>Cl, is a tetrahedral molecule with three slightly polar C-H bonds and a more polar C-Cl bond. The relative electronegativities of the bonded atoms is H &lt; C &lt; Cl, and so the bond moments all point toward the Cl end of the molecule and sum to yield a considerable dipole moment (the molecules are relatively polar).<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idm3023712\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_CHCl3_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"An image shows a carbon atom single bonded to three hydrogen atoms and a chlorine atom. There are arrows with crossed ends pointing from the hydrogen to the carbon near each bond, and one pointing from the carbon to the chlorine along that bond. The carbon and chlorine arrow is longer. This image uses dashes and wedges to give it a three-dimensional appearance.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp214036816\">For molecules of high symmetry such as BF<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal planar), CH<sub>4<\/sub> (tetrahedral), PF<sub>5<\/sub> (trigonal bipymidal), and SF<sub>6<\/sub> (octahedral), all the bonds are of identical polarity (same bond moment) and they are oriented in geometries that yield nonpolar molecules (dipole moment is zero). Molecules of less geometric symmetry, however, may be polar even when all bond moments are identical. For these molecules, the directions of the equal bond moments are such that they sum to give a nonzero dipole moment and a polar molecule. Examples of such molecules include hydrogen sulfide, H<sub>2<\/sub>S (nonlinear), and ammonia, NH<sub>3<\/sub> (trigonal pyramidal).<\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp35612832\" class=\"scaled-down\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown. The left structure shows a sulfur atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Near the sulfur is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone pair of electrons single bonded to three hydrogen atoms. Near the nitrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted negative sign. Near each hydrogen is a dipole symbol with a superscripted positive sign.\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-1513 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-300x91.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"91\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-300x91.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-65x20.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-225x69.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g-350x107.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/7.6g.png 653w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp51111376\">To summarize, to be polar, a molecule must:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-idp94928768\" type=\"1\">\n<li>Contain at least one polar covalent bond.<\/li>\n<li>Have a molecular structure such that the sum of the vectors of each bond dipole moment does not cancel.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div id=\"fs-idp83627232\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h4 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Properties of Polar Molecules<\/strong><\/h4>\n<p id=\"fs-idp272047168\">Polar molecules tend to align when placed in an electric field with the positive end of the molecule oriented toward the negative plate and the negative end toward the positive plate (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield\">(Figure)<\/a>). We can use an electrically charged object to attract polar molecules, but nonpolar molecules are not attracted. Also, polar solvents are better at dissolving polar substances, and nonpolar solvents are better at dissolving nonpolar substances.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) Molecules are always randomly distributed in the liquid state in the absence of an electric field. (b) When an electric field is applied, polar molecules like HF will align to the dipoles with the field direction.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp19283840\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, gray electrodes. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram also shows two vertical gray electrodes, the left labeled as negative and the right labeled as positive. The space between is yellow. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the negative electrode.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_07_06_Dipolfield-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows two vertical, gray electrodes. There are five molecules in between. The molecules are separate from one another and are composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a fluorine atom. The fluorine atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted negative sign while the hydrogen atom is labeled with a dipole symbol and a superscripted positive sign. The molecules are randomly oriented in the space. The right diagram also shows two vertical gray electrodes, the left labeled as negative and the right labeled as positive. The space between is yellow. The same molecules are present, but this time they are all facing horizontally, with the hydrogen-end of each molecule facing toward the negative electrode.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp56552448\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp103820464\">The <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16MolecPolarity\">molecule polarity simulation<\/a> provides many ways to explore dipole moments of bonds and molecules.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp238464336\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp12666320\">VSEPR theory predicts the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule. It states that valence electrons will assume an electron-pair geometry that minimizes repulsions between areas of high electron density (bonds and\/or lone pairs). Molecular geometry, which refers only to the placement of atoms in a molecule and not the electrons, is equivalent to electron-pair geometry only when there are no lone electron pairs around the central atom. A dipole moment measures a separation of charge. For one bond, the bond dipole moment is determined by the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms. For a molecule, the overall dipole moment is determined by both the individual bond moments and how these dipoles are arranged in the molecular structure. Polar molecules (those with an appreciable dipole moment) interact with electric fields, whereas nonpolar molecules do not.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp125299408\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp37961056\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp37961312\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm5201232\">\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h3 data-type=\"glossary-title\"><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp280671424\">\n<dt>axial position<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp166200672\">location in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry in which there is another atom at a 180\u00b0 angle and the equatorial positions are at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp51366688\"><\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp60998304\">\n<dt>bond dipole moment<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp147297136\">separation of charge in a bond that depends on the difference in electronegativity and the bond distance represented by partial charges or a vector<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp12081312\">\n<dt>dipole moment<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp154242144\">property of a molecule that describes the separation of charge determined by the sum of the individual bond moments based on the molecular structure<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp86864304\">\n<dt>electron-pair geometry<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp53104336\">arrangement around a central atom of all regions of electron density (bonds, lone pairs, or unpaired electrons)<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp113684160\">\n<dt>equatorial position<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp88927920\">one of the three positions in a trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120\u00b0 angles between them; the axial positions are located at a 90\u00b0 angle<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp35872064\">\n<dt>linear<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp85720080\">shape in which two outside groups are placed on opposite sides of a central atom<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp108813632\">\n<dt>molecular geometry<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp125544976\">geometry that includes only the placement of the atoms in the molecule<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp80913744\">\n<dt>octahedral<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp116870752\">shape in which six outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four groups forming a square and the other two forming the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the square plane<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp57075984\">\n<dt>polar molecule<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp239129232\">(also, dipole) molecule with an overall dipole moment<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp51917808\">\n<dt>tetrahedral<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp124673408\">shape in which four outside groups are placed around a central atom such that a three-dimensional shape is generated with four corners and 109.5\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp124673792\">\n<dt>trigonal bipyramidal<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp81671808\">shape in which five outside groups are placed around a central atom such that three form a flat triangle with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom, and the other two form the apex of two pyramids, one above and one below the triangular plane<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp36467056\">\n<dt>trigonal planar<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp132409040\">shape in which three outside groups are placed in a flat triangle around a central atom with 120\u00b0 angles between each pair and the central atom<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp27828880\">\n<dt>valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp16746272\">theory used to predict the bond angles in a molecule based on positioning regions of high electron density as far apart as possible to minimize electrostatic repulsion<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1392,"menu_order":7,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-467","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":301,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/467","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1392"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/467\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2135,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/467\/revisions\/2135"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/301"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/467\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=467"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=467"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=467"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=467"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}