{"id":586,"date":"2021-07-23T09:20:09","date_gmt":"2021-07-23T13:20:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/chapter\/stoichiometry-of-gaseous-substances-mixtures-and-reactions\/"},"modified":"2022-06-23T09:07:07","modified_gmt":"2022-06-23T13:07:07","slug":"stoichiometry-of-gaseous-substances-mixtures-and-reactions","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/chapter\/stoichiometry-of-gaseous-substances-mixtures-and-reactions\/","title":{"raw":"9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions","rendered":"9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Perform stoichiometric calculations involving gaseous substances<\/li>\r\n \t<li>State Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures and use it in calculations involving gaseous mixtures<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp201619456\">The study of the chemical behavior of gases was part of the basis of perhaps the most fundamental chemical revolution in history. French nobleman Antoine <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Lavoisier<\/span>, widely regarded as the \u201cfather of modern chemistry,\u201d changed chemistry from a qualitative to a quantitative science through his work with gases. He discovered the law of conservation of matter, discovered the role of oxygen in combustion reactions, determined the composition of air, explained respiration in terms of chemical reactions, and more. He was a casualty of the French Revolution, guillotined in 1794. Of his death, mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange said, \u201cIt took the mob only a moment to remove his head; a century will not suffice to reproduce it.\u201d<sup data-type=\"footnote-number\"><a href=\"#footnote1\" data-type=\"footnote-link\">1<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm31863392\">As described in an earlier chapter of this text, we can turn to chemical stoichiometry for answers to many of the questions that ask \u201cHow much?\u201d The essential property involved in such use of stoichiometry is the amount of substance, typically measured in moles (<em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em>). For gases, molar amount can be derived from convenient experimental measurements of pressure, temperature, and volume. Therefore, these measurements are useful in assessing the stoichiometry of pure gases, gas mixtures, and chemical reactions involving gases.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp148167024\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases: Dalton\u2019s Law<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp70155072\">Unless they chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other\u2019s pressure. Each individual gas in a mixture exerts the same pressure that it would exert if it were present alone in the container (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1\">(Figure)<\/a>). The pressure exerted by each individual gas in a mixture is called its <strong>partial pressure<\/strong>. This observation is summarized by <strong>Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures<\/strong>: <em data-effect=\"italics\">The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases<\/em>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp65742144\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>B<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>C<\/sub> + ... = \u03a3<sub>i<\/sub><em>P<\/em><sub>i<\/sub><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp97232880\">In the equation <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> is the total pressure of a mixture of gases, <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas A; <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>B<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas B; <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>C<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas C; and so on.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">If equal-volume cylinders containing gas A at a pressure of 300 kPa, gas B at a pressure of 600 kPa, and gas C at a pressure of 450 kPa are all combined in the same-size cylinder, the total pressure of the mixture is 1350 kPa.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp114351776\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure includes images of four gas-filled cylinders or tanks. Each has a valve at the top. The interior of the first cylinder is shaded blue. This region contains 5 small blue circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c300 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. The second cylinder is shaded lavender. This region contains 8 small purple circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c600 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. To the right of these cylinders is a third cylinder. Its interior is shaded pale yellow. This region contains 12 small yellow circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c450 k P a\u201d is on this region of the cylinder. An arrow labeled \u201cTotal pressure combined\u201d appears to the right of these three cylinders. This arrow points to a fourth cylinder. The interior of this cylinder is shaded a pale green. It contains evenly distributed small circles in the following quantities and colors; 5 blue, 8 purple, and 12 yellow. This cylinder is labeled \u201c1350 k P a.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure includes images of four gas-filled cylinders or tanks. Each has a valve at the top. The interior of the first cylinder is shaded blue. This region contains 5 small blue circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c300 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. The second cylinder is shaded lavender. This region contains 8 small purple circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c600 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. To the right of these cylinders is a third cylinder. Its interior is shaded pale yellow. This region contains 12 small yellow circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c450 k P a\u201d is on this region of the cylinder. An arrow labeled \u201cTotal pressure combined\u201d appears to the right of these three cylinders. This arrow points to a fourth cylinder. The interior of this cylinder is shaded a pale green. It contains evenly distributed small circles in the following quantities and colors; 5 blue, 8 purple, and 12 yellow. This cylinder is labeled \u201c1350 k P a.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp110759216\">The partial pressure of gas A is related to the total pressure of the gas mixture via its <strong>mole fraction (<em data-effect=\"italics\">X<\/em>)<\/strong>, a unit of concentration defined as the number of moles of a component of a solution divided by the total number of moles of all components:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp18188304\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"wp-image-1579 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-300x44.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"348\" height=\"51\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp75739968\">where <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em>, <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub><\/em>, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">n<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> are the partial pressure, mole fraction, and number of moles of gas A, respectively, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">n<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> is the number of moles of all components in the mixture.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp143452448\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp147731856\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nA 10.0-L vessel contains 2.50 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22123<\/sup> mol of H<sub>2<\/sub>, 1.00 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22123<\/sup> mol of He, and 3.00 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22124<\/sup> mol of Ne at 35 \u00b0C.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp100506960\">(a) What are the partial pressures of each of the gases?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp147676624\">(b) What is the total pressure in atmospheres?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp17315648\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe gases behave independently, so the partial pressure of each gas can be determined from the ideal gas equation, using <em>PV<\/em> = <em>nRT<\/em>:\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp201684064\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"wp-image-1580 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-300x107.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"465\" height=\"166\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp49915536\">The total pressure is given by the sum of the partial pressures:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp207663808\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>H2<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>He<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>Ne<\/sub> = (0.00632 atm + 0.00253 atm + 0.00076 atm = 9.61 x 10<sup>-3<\/sup> atm<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp1986144\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nA 5.73-L flask at 25 \u00b0C contains 0.0388 mol of N<sub>2<\/sub>, 0.147 mol of CO, and 0.0803 mol of H<sub>2<\/sub>. What is the total pressure in the flask in atmospheres?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm10367824\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101724928\">1.137 atm<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp107652512\">Here is another example of this concept, but dealing with mole fraction calculations.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp107854880\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp279668416\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nA gas mixture used for anesthesia contains 2.83 mol oxygen, O<sub>2<\/sub>, and 8.41 mol nitrous oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O. The total pressure of the mixture is 192 kPa.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp41662496\">(a) What are the mole fractions of O<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub>O?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp132439904\">(b) What are the partial pressures of O<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub>O?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp86077792\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nThe mole fraction is given by <em>X<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> = n<sub>A<\/sub>\/n<sub>total<\/sub> and the partial pressure is <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> \u00d7 <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em>.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm32258688\">For O<sub>2<\/sub>,<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm52855552\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone size-medium wp-image-1581 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-300x49.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"49\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp192169392\">and <em>P<\/em><sub>O2<\/sub> = <em>X<\/em><sub>O2<\/sub> \u00d7<em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = 0.252 \u00d7 192 kPa = 48.4 kPa<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp263870464\">For N<sub>2<\/sub>O,<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp202334992\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1582 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-300x41.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"285\" height=\"39\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp259944368\">and <em>P<\/em><sub>N2O<\/sub> = <em>X<\/em><sub>N2O<\/sub> \u00d7<em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = 0.748 \u00d7 192 kPa = 144 kPa<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm31767024\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nWhat is the pressure of a mixture of 0.200 g of H<sub>2<\/sub>, 1.00 g of N<sub>2<\/sub>, and 0.820 g of Ar in a container with a volume of 2.00 L at 20 \u00b0C?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp69846704\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp231949376\">1.87 atm<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp221977104\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Collection of Gases over Water<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp264029648\">A simple way to collect gases that do not react with water is to capture them in a bottle that has been filled with water and inverted into a dish filled with water. The pressure of the gas inside the bottle can be made equal to the air pressure outside by raising or lowering the bottle. When the water level is the same both inside and outside the bottle (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\">(Figure)<\/a>), the pressure of the gas is equal to the atmospheric pressure, which can be measured with a barometer.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">When a reaction produces a gas that is collected above water, the trapped gas is a mixture of the gas produced by the reaction and water vapor. If the collection flask is appropriately positioned to equalize the water levels both within and outside the flask, the pressure of the trapped gas mixture will equal the atmospheric pressure outside the flask (see the earlier discussion of manometers).<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idm14272784\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure shows a diagram of equipment used for collecting a gas over water. To the left is an Erlenmeyer flask. It is approximately two thirds full of a lavender colored liquid. Bubbles are evident in the liquid. The label \u201cReaction Producing Gas\u201d appears below the flask. A line segment connects this label to the liquid in the flask. The flask has a stopper in it through which a single glass tube extends from the open region above the liquid in the flask up, through the stopper, to the right, then angles down into a pan that is nearly full of light blue water. This tube again extends right once it is well beneath the water\u2019s surface. It then bends up into an inverted flask which is labeled \u201cCollection Flask.\u201d This collection flask is positioned with its mouth beneath the surface of the light blue water and appears approximately half full. Bubbles are evident in the water in the inverted flask. The open space above the water in the inverted flask is labeled \u201ccollected gas.\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows a diagram of equipment used for collecting a gas over water. To the left is an Erlenmeyer flask. It is approximately two thirds full of a lavender colored liquid. Bubbles are evident in the liquid. The label \u201cReaction Producing Gas\u201d appears below the flask. A line segment connects this label to the liquid in the flask. The flask has a stopper in it through which a single glass tube extends from the open region above the liquid in the flask up, through the stopper, to the right, then angles down into a pan that is nearly full of light blue water. This tube again extends right once it is well beneath the water\u2019s surface. It then bends up into an inverted flask which is labeled \u201cCollection Flask.\u201d This collection flask is positioned with its mouth beneath the surface of the light blue water and appears approximately half full. Bubbles are evident in the water in the inverted flask. The open space above the water in the inverted flask is labeled \u201ccollected gas.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp221722032\">However, there is another factor we must consider when we measure the pressure of the gas by this method. Water evaporates and there is always gaseous water (water vapor) above a sample of liquid water. As a gas is collected over water, it becomes saturated with water vapor and the total pressure of the mixture equals the partial pressure of the gas plus the partial pressure of the water vapor. The pressure of the pure gas is therefore equal to the total pressure minus the pressure of the water vapor\u2014this is referred to as the \u201cdry\u201d gas pressure, that is, the pressure of the gas only, without water vapor. The <strong>vapor pressure of water<\/strong>, which is the pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container, depends on the temperature (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2\">(Figure)<\/a>); more detailed information on the temperature dependence of water vapor can be found in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#fs-idm68841392\">(Figure).<\/a><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">This graph shows the vapor pressure of water at sea level as a function of temperature.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp38546432\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A graph is shown. The horizontal axis is labeled \u201cTemperature ( degrees C )\u201d with markings and labels provided for multiples of 20 beginning at 0 and ending at 100. The vertical axis is labeled \u201cVapor pressure ( torr )\u201d with marking and labels provided for multiples of 200, beginning at 0 and ending at 800. A smooth solid black curve extends from the origin up and to the right across the graph. The graph shows a positive trend with an increasing rate of change. On the vertical axis is ( 7 60) and an arrow pointing to it. The arrow is labeled, \u201cVapor pressure at ( 100 degrees C ).\u201d\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A graph is shown. The horizontal axis is labeled \u201cTemperature ( degrees C )\u201d with markings and labels provided for multiples of 20 beginning at 0 and ending at 100. The vertical axis is labeled \u201cVapor pressure ( torr )\u201d with marking and labels provided for multiples of 200, beginning at 0 and ending at 800. A smooth solid black curve extends from the origin up and to the right across the graph. The graph shows a positive trend with an increasing rate of change. On the vertical axis is ( 7 60) and an arrow pointing to it. The arrow is labeled, \u201cVapor pressure at ( 100 degrees C ).\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<table id=\"fs-idm68841392\" class=\"top-titled\" summary=\"This table has six columns and 13 rows. The first row is a header and it labels each column, \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d \u201cPressure (torr),\u201d \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d \u201cPressure (torr),\u201d \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d and \u201cPressure (torr).\u201d Under the first column are the following: negative 10, negative 5, negative 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16. Under the second column are the following: 1.95, 3.0, 3.9, 4.6, 5.3, 6.1, 7.0, 8.0, 9.2, 10.5, 12.0, and 13.6. Under the third column are the following: 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29. Under the fourth column are the following: 15.5, 16.5, 17.5, 18.7, 19.8, 21.1, 22.4, 23.8, 25.2, 26.7, 28.3, and 30.0. Under the fifth column are the following: 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 100.0, and 101.0. Under the sixth column are the following: 31.8, 42.2, 55.3, 92.5, 149.4, 233.7, 355.1, 525.8, 633.9, 733.2, 760.0, and 787.6.\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<th colspan=\"8\" data-align=\"center\">Vapor Pressure of Ice and Water in Various Temperatures at Sea Level<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\"><\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\"><\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\r\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u201310<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">1.95<\/td>\r\n<td rowspan=\"12\" data-align=\"left\"><\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">18<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">15.5<\/td>\r\n<td rowspan=\"12\" data-align=\"left\"><\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">30<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">31.8<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u20135<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">3.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">19<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">16.5<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">35<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">42.2<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">3.9<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">20<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">17.5<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">40<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">55.3<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">4.6<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">21<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">18.7<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">50<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">92.5<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">2<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">5.3<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">22<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">19.8<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">60<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">149.4<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">4<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">6.1<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">23<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">21.1<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">70<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">233.7<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">6<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">7.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">24<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">22.4<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">80<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">355.1<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">8<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">8.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">25<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">23.8<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">90<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">525.8<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">10<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">9.2<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">26<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">25.2<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">95<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">633.9<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">12<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">10.5<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">27<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">26.7<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">99<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">733.2<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">14<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">12.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">28<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">28.3<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">100.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">760.0<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr valign=\"top\">\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">16<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">13.6<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">29<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">30.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">101.0<\/td>\r\n<td data-align=\"left\">787.6<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp46681200\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp35760544\"><strong>Pressure of a Gas Collected Over Water:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nIf 0.200 L of argon is collected over water at a temperature of 26 \u00b0C and a pressure of 750 torr in a system like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\">(Figure)<\/a>, what is the partial pressure of argon?\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp18515888\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nAccording to Dalton\u2019s law, the total pressure in the bottle (750 torr) is the sum of the partial pressure of argon and the partial pressure of gaseous water:\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp297283264\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>H2O<\/sub><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp135677552\">Rearranging this equation to solve for the pressure of argon gives:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp33156768\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> - <em>P<\/em><sub>H2O<\/sub><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp144314112\">The pressure of water vapor above a sample of liquid water at 26 \u00b0C is 25.2 torr (<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/back-matter\/water-properties\/\">Appendix E<\/a>), so:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm40258608\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> = 750 torr - 25.2 torr = 725 torr<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp98186880\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nA sample of oxygen collected over water at a temperature of 29.0 \u00b0C and a pressure of 764 torr has a volume of 0.560 L. What volume would the dry oxygen have under the same conditions of temperature and pressure?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp98213776\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm32818672\">0.583 L<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp132626656\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp137887648\">Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp221629776\">We have previously measured quantities of reactants and products using masses for solids and volumes in conjunction with the molarity for solutions; now we can also use gas volumes to indicate quantities. If we know the volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas, we can use the ideal gas equation to calculate how many moles of the gas are present. If we know how many moles of a gas are involved, we can calculate the volume of a gas at any temperature and pressure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp45488016\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Avogadro\u2019s Law Revisited<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm7424624\">Sometimes we can take advantage of a simplifying feature of the stoichiometry of gases that solids and solutions do not exhibit: All gases that show ideal behavior contain the same number of molecules in the same volume (at the same temperature and pressure). Thus, the ratios of volumes of gases involved in a chemical reaction are given by the coefficients in the equation for the reaction, provided that the gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp21344160\">We can extend Avogadro\u2019s law (that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas) to chemical reactions with gases: Gases combine, or react, in definite and simple proportions by volume, provided that all gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure. For example, since nitrogen and hydrogen gases react to produce ammonia gas according to N<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) \u27f6 2NH<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>),\u00a0 a given volume of nitrogen gas reacts with three times that volume of hydrogen gas to produce two times that volume of ammonia gas, if pressure and temperature remain constant.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp16937680\">The explanation for this is illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia\">(Figure)<\/a>. According to Avogadro\u2019s law, equal volumes of gaseous N<sub>2<\/sub>, H<sub>2<\/sub>, and NH<sub>3<\/sub>, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. Because one molecule of N<sub>2<\/sub> reacts with three molecules of H<sub>2<\/sub> to produce two molecules of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, the volume of H<sub>2<\/sub> required is three times the volume of N<sub>2<\/sub>, and the volume of NH<sub>3<\/sub> produced is two times the volume of N<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">One volume of N<sub>2<\/sub> combines with three volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> to form two volumes of NH<sub>3<\/sub>.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idm7395552\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This diagram provided models of the chemical reaction written with formulas across the bottom of the figure. The reaction is written; N subscript 2 plus 3H subscript 2 followed by an arrow pointing right to NH subscript 3. Just above the formulas, space-filling models are provided. Above NH subscript 2, two blue spheres are bonded. Above 3H subscript 2, three pairs of two slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Above NH subscript 3, two molecules are shown composed each of a central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Across the top of the diagram, the reaction is illustrated with balloons. To the left is a light blue balloon, which is labeled \u201cN subscript 2\u201d. This balloon contains a single space-filling model composed of two bonded blue spheres. This balloon is followed by a plus sign, then three grey balloons which are each labeled \u201cH subscript 2.\u201d Each of these balloons similarly contain a single space-filling model composed of two bonded white spheres. These white spheres are slightly smaller than the blue spheres. An arrow follows that points right to two light-green balloons, which are each labeled \u201c2 NH subscript 3.\u201d Each light-green balloon contains a space-filling model composed of a single central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia-1.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram provided models of the chemical reaction written with formulas across the bottom of the figure. The reaction is written; N subscript 2 plus 3H subscript 2 followed by an arrow pointing right to NH subscript 3. Just above the formulas, space-filling models are provided. Above NH subscript 2, two blue spheres are bonded. Above 3H subscript 2, three pairs of two slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Above NH subscript 3, two molecules are shown composed each of a central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Across the top of the diagram, the reaction is illustrated with balloons. To the left is a light blue balloon, which is labeled \u201cN subscript 2\u201d. This balloon contains a single space-filling model composed of two bonded blue spheres. This balloon is followed by a plus sign, then three grey balloons which are each labeled \u201cH subscript 2.\u201d Each of these balloons similarly contain a single space-filling model composed of two bonded white spheres. These white spheres are slightly smaller than the blue spheres. An arrow follows that points right to two light-green balloons, which are each labeled \u201c2 NH subscript 3.\u201d Each light-green balloon contains a space-filling model composed of a single central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp89809920\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp31720640\"><strong>Reaction of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nPropane, C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), is used in gas grills to provide the heat for cooking. What volume of O<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>) measured at 25 \u00b0C and 760 torr is required to react with 2.7 L of propane measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure? Assume that the propane undergoes complete combustion.\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp137922560\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution:<\/span><\/p>\r\nThe ratio of the volumes of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub> and O<sub>2<\/sub> will be equal to the ratio of their coefficients in the balanced equation for the reaction:\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp57291280\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1584 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-300x38.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"324\" height=\"41\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp90728656\">From the equation, we see that one volume of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub> will react with five volumes of O<sub>2<\/sub>:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp8505312\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1583 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-300x52.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"283\" height=\"49\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp78474976\">A volume of 13.5 L of O<sub>2<\/sub> will be required to react with 2.7 L of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub>.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp109294464\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nAn acetylene tank for an oxyacetylene welding torch provides 9340 L of acetylene gas, C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>2<\/sub>, at 0 \u00b0C and 1 atm. How many tanks of oxygen, each providing 7.00 \u00d7 10<sup>3<\/sup> L of O<sub>2<\/sub> at 0 \u00b0C and 1 atm, will be required to burn the acetylene?\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp172649872\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">2C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>2<\/sub> + 5O<sub>2<\/sub> \u2192 4CO<sub>2<\/sub> + 2H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm19557184\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm79476592\">3.34 tanks (2.34 \u00d7 10<sup>4<\/sup> L)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp240638800\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp19707328\"><strong>Volumes of Reacting Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nAmmonia is an important fertilizer and industrial chemical. Suppose that a volume of 683 billion cubic feet of gaseous ammonia, measured at 25 \u00b0C and 1 atm, was manufactured. What volume of H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), measured under the same conditions, was required to prepare this amount of ammonia by reaction with N<sub>2<\/sub>?\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp109603280\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">N<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) \u2192 2NH<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp212669488\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nBecause equal volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> and NH<sub>3<\/sub> contain equal numbers of molecules and each three molecules of H<sub>2<\/sub> that react produce two molecules of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, the ratio of the volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> and NH<sub>3<\/sub> will be equal to 3:2. Two volumes of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, in this case in units of billion ft<sup>3<\/sup>, will be formed from three volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub>:\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp171418912\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1585 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-300x35.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"351\" height=\"41\" \/><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp138098944\">The manufacture of 683 billion ft<sup>3<\/sup> of NH<sub>3<\/sub> required 1020 billion ft<sup>3<\/sup> of H<sub>2<\/sub>. (At 25 \u00b0C and 1 atm, this is the volume of a cube with an edge length of approximately 1.9 miles.)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp37301360\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nWhat volume of O<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>) measured at 25 \u00b0C and 760 torr is required to react with 17.0 L of ethylene, C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>4<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure? The products are CO<sub>2<\/sub> and water vapor.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp105257584\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm7381904\">51.0 L<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp13049024\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm2007840\"><strong>Volume of Gaseous Product:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nWhat volume of hydrogen at 27 \u00b0C and 723 torr may be prepared by the reaction of 8.88 g of gallium with an excess of hydrochloric acid?\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm20890912\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">2Ga(<em>s<\/em>) + 6HCl(<em>aq<\/em>) \u27f62GaCl<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>aq<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp98177696\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nConvert the provided mass of the limiting reactant, Ga, to moles of hydrogen produced:\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm46693760\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\" wp-image-1586 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-300x36.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"42\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp35037744\">Convert the provided temperature and pressure values to appropriate units (K and atm, respectively), and then use the molar amount of hydrogen gas and the ideal gas equation to calculate the volume of gas:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp48121168\" data-type=\"equation\"><img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1587 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-300x26.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"451\" height=\"39\" \/><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm17626704\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\r\nSulfur dioxide is an intermediate in the preparation of sulfuric acid. What volume of SO<sub>2<\/sub> at 343 \u00b0C and 1.21 atm is produced by burning l.00 kg of sulfur in excess oxygen?\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp30333040\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm23787120\">1.30 \u00d7 10<sup>3<\/sup> L<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm13395728\" class=\"chemistry sciences-interconnect\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp143406944\">The thin skin of our atmosphere keeps the earth from being an ice planet and makes it habitable. In fact, this is due to less than 0.5% of the air molecules. Of the energy from the sun that reaches the earth, almost 1\/3 is reflected back into space, with the rest absorbed by the atmosphere and the surface of the earth. Some of the energy that the earth absorbs is re-emitted as infrared (IR) radiation, a portion of which passes back out through the atmosphere into space. Most if this IR radiation, however, is absorbed by certain atmospheric gases, effectively trapping heat within the atmosphere in a phenomenon known as the <em data-effect=\"italics\">greenhouse effect<\/em>. This effect maintains global temperatures within the range needed to sustain life on earth. Without our atmosphere, the earth's average temperature would be lower by more than 30 \u00b0C (nearly 60 \u00b0F). The major greenhouse gases (GHGs) are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone. Since the Industrial Revolution, human activity has been increasing the concentrations of GHGs, which have changed the energy balance and are significantly altering the earth\u2019s climate (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Greenhouse gases trap enough of the sun\u2019s energy to make the planet habitable\u2014this is known as the greenhouse effect. Human activities are increasing greenhouse gas levels, warming the planet and causing more extreme weather events.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp86921200\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This diagram shows half of a two dimensional view of the earth in blue and green at the left of the image. A slight distance outside the hemisphere is a grey arc. A line segment connects the label \u201cAtmosphere\u201d to the region between the hemisphere and the grey arc. In this region, near the surface of the earth the chemical formulas C O subscript 2, C H subscript 3, and N subscript 2 O appear. Five red arrows formed from wavy lines extend from green regions on the earth out into and just beyond the region labeled \u201cAtmosphere.\u201d The label \u201cInfrared radiation\u201d points to one of these red arrows. At a fair distance outside of the grey arc appears a yellow circle with a jagged boundary. This circle is labeled \u201cSun.\u201d From it extend yellow arrows with wavy lines which extend toward the earth. Three of the arrows extend to the green region on the earth. One of the arrows appears to be reflected off the grey arc, causing its path to turn away from the earth.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming-1.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram shows half of a two dimensional view of the earth in blue and green at the left of the image. A slight distance outside the hemisphere is a grey arc. A line segment connects the label \u201cAtmosphere\u201d to the region between the hemisphere and the grey arc. In this region, near the surface of the earth the chemical formulas C O subscript 2, C H subscript 3, and N subscript 2 O appear. Five red arrows formed from wavy lines extend from green regions on the earth out into and just beyond the region labeled \u201cAtmosphere.\u201d The label \u201cInfrared radiation\u201d points to one of these red arrows. At a fair distance outside of the grey arc appears a yellow circle with a jagged boundary. This circle is labeled \u201cSun.\u201d From it extend yellow arrows with wavy lines which extend toward the earth. Three of the arrows extend to the green region on the earth. One of the arrows appears to be reflected off the grey arc, causing its path to turn away from the earth.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm12984240\">There is strong evidence from multiple sources that higher atmospheric levels of CO<sub>2<\/sub> are caused by human activity, with fossil fuel burning accounting for about \u00be of the recent increase in CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Reliable data from ice cores reveals that CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentration in the atmosphere is at the highest level in the past 800,000 years; other evidence indicates that it may be at its highest level in 20 million years. In recent years, the CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentration has increased preindustrial levels of ~280 ppm to more than 400 ppm today (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">CO<sub>2<\/sub> levels over the past 700,000 years were typically from 200\u2013300 ppm, with a steep, unprecedented increase over the past 50 years.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp99125712\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure has the heading \u201cCarbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere.\u201d The first graph has a horizontal axis label \u201cYear ( B C )\u201d and a vertical axis label \u201cCarbon dioxide concentration ( p p m ).\u201d The horizontal axis labels begin at 700,000 on the left and increases by multiples of 100,000 up to 0 on the right. The vertical axis begins at 0 and increases by multiples of 50 extending up to 400. A jagged, cyclical pattern is shown that begins before 600,000 B C at under 200 p p m. Up to 0 B C values appear to vary cyclically up to a high of about 300 p p m. Extending beyond 0 B C to the right, the carbon dioxide concentration appears to be on a steady increase, having reached nearly 400 p p m in recent years. The second graph is shown to magnify the portion of the graph that is most recent. This graph begins just before the year 1960 and includes markings for multiples of 10 up to the year 2010. The vertical axis begins just below 320 p p m and includes markings for all multiples of 20 up to 400 p p m. A smooth black line is shown extending through a jagged red data pattern. The trend is a steady, nearly linear increase from the lower left to the upper right on the graph.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure has the heading \u201cCarbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere.\u201d The first graph has a horizontal axis label \u201cYear ( B C )\u201d and a vertical axis label \u201cCarbon dioxide concentration ( p p m ).\u201d The horizontal axis labels begin at 700,000 on the left and increases by multiples of 100,000 up to 0 on the right. The vertical axis begins at 0 and increases by multiples of 50 extending up to 400. A jagged, cyclical pattern is shown that begins before 600,000 B C at under 200 p p m. Up to 0 B C values appear to vary cyclically up to a high of about 300 p p m. Extending beyond 0 B C to the right, the carbon dioxide concentration appears to be on a steady increase, having reached nearly 400 p p m in recent years. The second graph is shown to magnify the portion of the graph that is most recent. This graph begins just before the year 1960 and includes markings for multiples of 10 up to the year 2010. The vertical axis begins just below 320 p p m and includes markings for all multiples of 20 up to 400 p p m. A smooth black line is shown extending through a jagged red data pattern. The trend is a steady, nearly linear increase from the lower left to the upper right on the graph.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm33251312\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp85689376\">Click <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16GlobalWarming\">here<\/a> to see a 2-minute video explaining greenhouse gases and global warming.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp18054480\" class=\"chemistry chemist-portrait\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Susan Solomon<\/strong><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp97050544\">Atmospheric and climate scientist Susan <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Solomon<\/span> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom\">(Figure)<\/a>) is the author of one of <em data-effect=\"italics\">The New York Times<\/em> books of the year (<em data-effect=\"italics\">The Coldest March<\/em>, 2001), one of Time magazine\u2019s 100 most influential people in the world (2008), and a working group leader of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was the recipient of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. She helped determine and explain the cause of the formation of the ozone hole over Antarctica, and has authored many important papers on climate change. She has been awarded the top scientific honors in the US and France (the National Medal of Science and the Grande Medaille, respectively), and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academy of Sciences, and the European Academy of Sciences. Formerly a professor at the University of Colorado, she is now at MIT, and continues to work at NOAA.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp221818192\">For more information, watch this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16SusanSolomon\">video<\/a> about Susan Solomon.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Susan Solomon\u2019s research focuses on climate change and has been instrumental in determining the cause of the ozone hole over Antarctica. (credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp104021664\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photograph is shown of Susan Solomon sitting next to a globe.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph is shown of Susan Solomon sitting next to a globe.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp102169424\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp71854032\">The ideal gas law can be used to derive a number of convenient equations relating directly measured quantities to properties of interest for gaseous substances and mixtures. Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures may be used to relate measured gas pressures for gaseous mixtures to their compositions. Avogadro\u2019s law may be used in stoichiometric computations for chemical reactions involving gaseous reactants or products.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp7509520\" class=\"key-equations\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Key Equations<\/h3>\r\n<ul id=\"fs-idm8896256\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\r\n \t<li><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> + <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>B<\/sub><\/em> + <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>C<\/sub><\/em> + \u2026 = \u01a9<sub>i<\/sub><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<\/em><sub>i<\/sub><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub> P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>X<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> = n<sub>A<\/sub>\/n<sub>total<\/sub><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp118960256\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp224745536\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp224745792\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp224746048\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"footnote-refs\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"footnote-refs-title\"><strong>Footnotes<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<ul data-list-type=\"bulleted\" data-bullet-style=\"none\">\r\n \t<li data-type=\"footnote-ref\"><a href=\"#footnote-ref1\" data-type=\"footnote-ref-link\">1<\/a><span data-type=\"footnote-ref-content\">\u201cQuotations by Joseph-Louis Lagrange,\u201d last modified February 2006, accessed February 10, 2015, http:\/\/www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk\/Quotations\/Lagrange.html<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"glossary-title\"><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp142977184\">\r\n \t<dt>Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp1131824\">total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp1132336\">\r\n \t<dt>mole fraction (<em data-effect=\"italics\">X<\/em>)<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp104769344\">concentration unit defined as the ratio of the molar amount of a mixture component to the total number of moles of all mixture components<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp104769888\">\r\n \t<dt>partial pressure<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp57901136\">pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp57901520\">\r\n \t<dt>vapor pressure of water<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp57901904\">pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container at a specific temperature<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Perform stoichiometric calculations involving gaseous substances<\/li>\n<li>State Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures and use it in calculations involving gaseous mixtures<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp201619456\">The study of the chemical behavior of gases was part of the basis of perhaps the most fundamental chemical revolution in history. French nobleman Antoine <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Lavoisier<\/span>, widely regarded as the \u201cfather of modern chemistry,\u201d changed chemistry from a qualitative to a quantitative science through his work with gases. He discovered the law of conservation of matter, discovered the role of oxygen in combustion reactions, determined the composition of air, explained respiration in terms of chemical reactions, and more. He was a casualty of the French Revolution, guillotined in 1794. Of his death, mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange said, \u201cIt took the mob only a moment to remove his head; a century will not suffice to reproduce it.\u201d<sup data-type=\"footnote-number\"><a href=\"#footnote1\" data-type=\"footnote-link\">1<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm31863392\">As described in an earlier chapter of this text, we can turn to chemical stoichiometry for answers to many of the questions that ask \u201cHow much?\u201d The essential property involved in such use of stoichiometry is the amount of substance, typically measured in moles (<em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em>). For gases, molar amount can be derived from convenient experimental measurements of pressure, temperature, and volume. Therefore, these measurements are useful in assessing the stoichiometry of pure gases, gas mixtures, and chemical reactions involving gases.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp148167024\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases: Dalton\u2019s Law<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp70155072\">Unless they chemically react with each other, the individual gases in a mixture of gases do not affect each other\u2019s pressure. Each individual gas in a mixture exerts the same pressure that it would exert if it were present alone in the container (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1\">(Figure)<\/a>). The pressure exerted by each individual gas in a mixture is called its <strong>partial pressure<\/strong>. This observation is summarized by <strong>Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures<\/strong>: <em data-effect=\"italics\">The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases<\/em>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp65742144\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>B<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>C<\/sub> + &#8230; = \u03a3<sub>i<\/sub><em>P<\/em><sub>i<\/sub><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp97232880\">In the equation <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> is the total pressure of a mixture of gases, <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas A; <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>B<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas B; <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>C<\/sub><\/em> is the partial pressure of gas C; and so on.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">If equal-volume cylinders containing gas A at a pressure of 300 kPa, gas B at a pressure of 600 kPa, and gas C at a pressure of 450 kPa are all combined in the same-size cylinder, the total pressure of the mixture is 1350 kPa.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp114351776\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure includes images of four gas-filled cylinders or tanks. Each has a valve at the top. The interior of the first cylinder is shaded blue. This region contains 5 small blue circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c300 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. The second cylinder is shaded lavender. This region contains 8 small purple circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c600 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. To the right of these cylinders is a third cylinder. Its interior is shaded pale yellow. This region contains 12 small yellow circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c450 k P a\u201d is on this region of the cylinder. An arrow labeled \u201cTotal pressure combined\u201d appears to the right of these three cylinders. This arrow points to a fourth cylinder. The interior of this cylinder is shaded a pale green. It contains evenly distributed small circles in the following quantities and colors; 5 blue, 8 purple, and 12 yellow. This cylinder is labeled \u201c1350 k P a.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_DaltonLaw1-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure includes images of four gas-filled cylinders or tanks. Each has a valve at the top. The interior of the first cylinder is shaded blue. This region contains 5 small blue circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c300 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. The second cylinder is shaded lavender. This region contains 8 small purple circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c600 k P a\u201d is on the cylinder. To the right of these cylinders is a third cylinder. Its interior is shaded pale yellow. This region contains 12 small yellow circles that are evenly distributed. The label \u201c450 k P a\u201d is on this region of the cylinder. An arrow labeled \u201cTotal pressure combined\u201d appears to the right of these three cylinders. This arrow points to a fourth cylinder. The interior of this cylinder is shaded a pale green. It contains evenly distributed small circles in the following quantities and colors; 5 blue, 8 purple, and 12 yellow. This cylinder is labeled \u201c1350 k P a.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp110759216\">The partial pressure of gas A is related to the total pressure of the gas mixture via its <strong>mole fraction (<em data-effect=\"italics\">X<\/em>)<\/strong>, a unit of concentration defined as the number of moles of a component of a solution divided by the total number of moles of all components:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp18188304\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1579 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-300x44.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"348\" height=\"51\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-300x44.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-65x10.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-225x33.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a-350x52.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3a.png 514w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 348px) 100vw, 348px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp75739968\">where <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em>, <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub><\/em>, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">n<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> are the partial pressure, mole fraction, and number of moles of gas A, respectively, and <em data-effect=\"italics\">n<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> is the number of moles of all components in the mixture.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp143452448\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp147731856\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A 10.0-L vessel contains 2.50 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22123<\/sup> mol of H<sub>2<\/sub>, 1.00 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22123<\/sup> mol of He, and 3.00 \u00d7 10<sup>\u22124<\/sup> mol of Ne at 35 \u00b0C.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp100506960\">(a) What are the partial pressures of each of the gases?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp147676624\">(b) What is the total pressure in atmospheres?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp17315648\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The gases behave independently, so the partial pressure of each gas can be determined from the ideal gas equation, using <em>PV<\/em> = <em>nRT<\/em>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp201684064\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1580 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-300x107.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"465\" height=\"166\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-300x107.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-768x274.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-65x23.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-225x80.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b-350x125.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3b.png 991w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 465px) 100vw, 465px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp49915536\">The total pressure is given by the sum of the partial pressures:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp207663808\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>H2<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>He<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>Ne<\/sub> = (0.00632 atm + 0.00253 atm + 0.00076 atm = 9.61 x 10<sup>-3<\/sup> atm<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp1986144\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A 5.73-L flask at 25 \u00b0C contains 0.0388 mol of N<sub>2<\/sub>, 0.147 mol of CO, and 0.0803 mol of H<sub>2<\/sub>. What is the total pressure in the flask in atmospheres?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm10367824\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101724928\">1.137 atm<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp107652512\">Here is another example of this concept, but dealing with mole fraction calculations.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp107854880\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp279668416\"><strong>The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A gas mixture used for anesthesia contains 2.83 mol oxygen, O<sub>2<\/sub>, and 8.41 mol nitrous oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O. The total pressure of the mixture is 192 kPa.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp41662496\">(a) What are the mole fractions of O<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub>O?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp132439904\">(b) What are the partial pressures of O<sub>2<\/sub> and N<sub>2<\/sub>O?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp86077792\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The mole fraction is given by <em>X<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> = n<sub>A<\/sub>\/n<sub>total<\/sub> and the partial pressure is <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> \u00d7 <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm32258688\">For O<sub>2<\/sub>,<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm52855552\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone size-medium wp-image-1581 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-300x49.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"49\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-300x49.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-65x11.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-225x37.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c-350x57.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3c.png 499w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp192169392\">and <em>P<\/em><sub>O2<\/sub> = <em>X<\/em><sub>O2<\/sub> \u00d7<em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = 0.252 \u00d7 192 kPa = 48.4 kPa<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp263870464\">For N<sub>2<\/sub>O,<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp202334992\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1582 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-300x41.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"285\" height=\"39\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-300x41.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-65x9.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-225x31.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d-350x48.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3d.png 515w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 285px) 100vw, 285px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp259944368\">and <em>P<\/em><sub>N2O<\/sub> = <em>X<\/em><sub>N2O<\/sub> \u00d7<em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = 0.748 \u00d7 192 kPa = 144 kPa<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm31767024\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>What is the pressure of a mixture of 0.200 g of H<sub>2<\/sub>, 1.00 g of N<sub>2<\/sub>, and 0.820 g of Ar in a container with a volume of 2.00 L at 20 \u00b0C?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp69846704\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp231949376\">1.87 atm<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp221977104\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Collection of Gases over Water<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp264029648\">A simple way to collect gases that do not react with water is to capture them in a bottle that has been filled with water and inverted into a dish filled with water. The pressure of the gas inside the bottle can be made equal to the air pressure outside by raising or lowering the bottle. When the water level is the same both inside and outside the bottle (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\">(Figure)<\/a>), the pressure of the gas is equal to the atmospheric pressure, which can be measured with a barometer.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">When a reaction produces a gas that is collected above water, the trapped gas is a mixture of the gas produced by the reaction and water vapor. If the collection flask is appropriately positioned to equalize the water levels both within and outside the flask, the pressure of the trapped gas mixture will equal the atmospheric pressure outside the flask (see the earlier discussion of manometers).<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idm14272784\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure shows a diagram of equipment used for collecting a gas over water. To the left is an Erlenmeyer flask. It is approximately two thirds full of a lavender colored liquid. Bubbles are evident in the liquid. The label \u201cReaction Producing Gas\u201d appears below the flask. A line segment connects this label to the liquid in the flask. The flask has a stopper in it through which a single glass tube extends from the open region above the liquid in the flask up, through the stopper, to the right, then angles down into a pan that is nearly full of light blue water. This tube again extends right once it is well beneath the water\u2019s surface. It then bends up into an inverted flask which is labeled \u201cCollection Flask.\u201d This collection flask is positioned with its mouth beneath the surface of the light blue water and appears approximately half full. Bubbles are evident in the water in the inverted flask. The open space above the water in the inverted flask is labeled \u201ccollected gas.\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure shows a diagram of equipment used for collecting a gas over water. To the left is an Erlenmeyer flask. It is approximately two thirds full of a lavender colored liquid. Bubbles are evident in the liquid. The label \u201cReaction Producing Gas\u201d appears below the flask. A line segment connects this label to the liquid in the flask. The flask has a stopper in it through which a single glass tube extends from the open region above the liquid in the flask up, through the stopper, to the right, then angles down into a pan that is nearly full of light blue water. This tube again extends right once it is well beneath the water\u2019s surface. It then bends up into an inverted flask which is labeled \u201cCollection Flask.\u201d This collection flask is positioned with its mouth beneath the surface of the light blue water and appears approximately half full. Bubbles are evident in the water in the inverted flask. The open space above the water in the inverted flask is labeled \u201ccollected gas.\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp221722032\">However, there is another factor we must consider when we measure the pressure of the gas by this method. Water evaporates and there is always gaseous water (water vapor) above a sample of liquid water. As a gas is collected over water, it becomes saturated with water vapor and the total pressure of the mixture equals the partial pressure of the gas plus the partial pressure of the water vapor. The pressure of the pure gas is therefore equal to the total pressure minus the pressure of the water vapor\u2014this is referred to as the \u201cdry\u201d gas pressure, that is, the pressure of the gas only, without water vapor. The <strong>vapor pressure of water<\/strong>, which is the pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container, depends on the temperature (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2\">(Figure)<\/a>); more detailed information on the temperature dependence of water vapor can be found in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#fs-idm68841392\">(Figure).<\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">This graph shows the vapor pressure of water at sea level as a function of temperature.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp38546432\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A graph is shown. The horizontal axis is labeled \u201cTemperature ( degrees C )\u201d with markings and labels provided for multiples of 20 beginning at 0 and ending at 100. The vertical axis is labeled \u201cVapor pressure ( torr )\u201d with marking and labels provided for multiples of 200, beginning at 0 and ending at 800. A smooth solid black curve extends from the origin up and to the right across the graph. The graph shows a positive trend with an increasing rate of change. On the vertical axis is ( 7 60) and an arrow pointing to it. The arrow is labeled, \u201cVapor pressure at ( 100 degrees C ).\u201d\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A graph is shown. The horizontal axis is labeled \u201cTemperature ( degrees C )\u201d with markings and labels provided for multiples of 20 beginning at 0 and ending at 100. The vertical axis is labeled \u201cVapor pressure ( torr )\u201d with marking and labels provided for multiples of 200, beginning at 0 and ending at 800. A smooth solid black curve extends from the origin up and to the right across the graph. The graph shows a positive trend with an increasing rate of change. On the vertical axis is ( 7 60) and an arrow pointing to it. The arrow is labeled, \u201cVapor pressure at ( 100 degrees C ).\u201d\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<table id=\"fs-idm68841392\" class=\"top-titled\" summary=\"This table has six columns and 13 rows. The first row is a header and it labels each column, \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d \u201cPressure (torr),\u201d \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d \u201cPressure (torr),\u201d \u201cTemperature (degree sign C),\u201d and \u201cPressure (torr).\u201d Under the first column are the following: negative 10, negative 5, negative 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16. Under the second column are the following: 1.95, 3.0, 3.9, 4.6, 5.3, 6.1, 7.0, 8.0, 9.2, 10.5, 12.0, and 13.6. Under the third column are the following: 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29. Under the fourth column are the following: 15.5, 16.5, 17.5, 18.7, 19.8, 21.1, 22.4, 23.8, 25.2, 26.7, 28.3, and 30.0. Under the fifth column are the following: 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99, 100.0, and 101.0. Under the sixth column are the following: 31.8, 42.2, 55.3, 92.5, 149.4, 233.7, 355.1, 525.8, 633.9, 733.2, 760.0, and 787.6.\">\n<thead>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<th colspan=\"8\" data-align=\"center\">Vapor Pressure of Ice and Water in Various Temperatures at Sea Level<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\"><\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\"><\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\">Temperature (\u00b0C)<\/th>\n<th data-align=\"left\">Pressure (torr)<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u201310<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">1.95<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"12\" data-align=\"left\"><\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">18<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">15.5<\/td>\n<td rowspan=\"12\" data-align=\"left\"><\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">30<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">31.8<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u20135<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">3.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">19<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">16.5<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">35<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">42.2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">\u20132<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">3.9<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">20<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">17.5<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">40<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">55.3<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">4.6<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">21<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">18.7<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">50<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">92.5<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">2<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">5.3<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">22<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">19.8<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">60<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">149.4<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">4<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">6.1<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">23<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">21.1<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">70<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">233.7<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">6<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">7.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">24<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">22.4<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">80<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">355.1<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">8<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">8.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">25<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">23.8<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">90<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">525.8<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">10<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">9.2<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">26<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">25.2<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">95<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">633.9<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">12<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">10.5<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">27<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">26.7<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">99<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">733.2<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">14<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">12.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">28<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">28.3<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">100.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">760.0<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr valign=\"top\">\n<td data-align=\"left\">16<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">13.6<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">29<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">30.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">101.0<\/td>\n<td data-align=\"left\">787.6<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div id=\"fs-idp46681200\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp35760544\"><strong>Pressure of a Gas Collected Over Water:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>If 0.200 L of argon is collected over water at a temperature of 26 \u00b0C and a pressure of 750 torr in a system like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_WaterVapor\">(Figure)<\/a>, what is the partial pressure of argon?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp18515888\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>According to Dalton\u2019s law, the total pressure in the bottle (750 torr) is the sum of the partial pressure of argon and the partial pressure of gaseous water:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp297283264\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> + <em>P<\/em><sub>H2O<\/sub><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp135677552\">Rearranging this equation to solve for the pressure of argon gives:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp33156768\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> = <em>P<\/em><sub>Total<\/sub> &#8211; <em>P<\/em><sub>H2O<\/sub><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp144314112\">The pressure of water vapor above a sample of liquid water at 26 \u00b0C is 25.2 torr (<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/back-matter\/water-properties\/\">Appendix E<\/a>), so:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm40258608\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\"><em>P<\/em><sub>Ar<\/sub> = 750 torr &#8211; 25.2 torr = 725 torr<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp98186880\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>A sample of oxygen collected over water at a temperature of 29.0 \u00b0C and a pressure of 764 torr has a volume of 0.560 L. What volume would the dry oxygen have under the same conditions of temperature and pressure?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp98213776\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm32818672\">0.583 L<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp132626656\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp137887648\">Chemical stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships between reactants and products in chemical reactions.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp221629776\">We have previously measured quantities of reactants and products using masses for solids and volumes in conjunction with the molarity for solutions; now we can also use gas volumes to indicate quantities. If we know the volume, pressure, and temperature of a gas, we can use the ideal gas equation to calculate how many moles of the gas are present. If we know how many moles of a gas are involved, we can calculate the volume of a gas at any temperature and pressure.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp45488016\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Avogadro\u2019s Law Revisited<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm7424624\">Sometimes we can take advantage of a simplifying feature of the stoichiometry of gases that solids and solutions do not exhibit: All gases that show ideal behavior contain the same number of molecules in the same volume (at the same temperature and pressure). Thus, the ratios of volumes of gases involved in a chemical reaction are given by the coefficients in the equation for the reaction, provided that the gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp21344160\">We can extend Avogadro\u2019s law (that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas) to chemical reactions with gases: Gases combine, or react, in definite and simple proportions by volume, provided that all gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure. For example, since nitrogen and hydrogen gases react to produce ammonia gas according to N<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) \u27f6 2NH<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>),\u00a0 a given volume of nitrogen gas reacts with three times that volume of hydrogen gas to produce two times that volume of ammonia gas, if pressure and temperature remain constant.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp16937680\">The explanation for this is illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia\">(Figure)<\/a>. According to Avogadro\u2019s law, equal volumes of gaseous N<sub>2<\/sub>, H<sub>2<\/sub>, and NH<sub>3<\/sub>, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. Because one molecule of N<sub>2<\/sub> reacts with three molecules of H<sub>2<\/sub> to produce two molecules of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, the volume of H<sub>2<\/sub> required is three times the volume of N<sub>2<\/sub>, and the volume of NH<sub>3<\/sub> produced is two times the volume of N<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">One volume of N<sub>2<\/sub> combines with three volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> to form two volumes of NH<sub>3<\/sub>.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idm7395552\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This diagram provided models of the chemical reaction written with formulas across the bottom of the figure. The reaction is written; N subscript 2 plus 3H subscript 2 followed by an arrow pointing right to NH subscript 3. Just above the formulas, space-filling models are provided. Above NH subscript 2, two blue spheres are bonded. Above 3H subscript 2, three pairs of two slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Above NH subscript 3, two molecules are shown composed each of a central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Across the top of the diagram, the reaction is illustrated with balloons. To the left is a light blue balloon, which is labeled \u201cN subscript 2\u201d. This balloon contains a single space-filling model composed of two bonded blue spheres. This balloon is followed by a plus sign, then three grey balloons which are each labeled \u201cH subscript 2.\u201d Each of these balloons similarly contain a single space-filling model composed of two bonded white spheres. These white spheres are slightly smaller than the blue spheres. An arrow follows that points right to two light-green balloons, which are each labeled \u201c2 NH subscript 3.\u201d Each light-green balloon contains a space-filling model composed of a single central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_Ammonia-1.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram provided models of the chemical reaction written with formulas across the bottom of the figure. The reaction is written; N subscript 2 plus 3H subscript 2 followed by an arrow pointing right to NH subscript 3. Just above the formulas, space-filling models are provided. Above NH subscript 2, two blue spheres are bonded. Above 3H subscript 2, three pairs of two slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Above NH subscript 3, two molecules are shown composed each of a central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded. Across the top of the diagram, the reaction is illustrated with balloons. To the left is a light blue balloon, which is labeled \u201cN subscript 2\u201d. This balloon contains a single space-filling model composed of two bonded blue spheres. This balloon is followed by a plus sign, then three grey balloons which are each labeled \u201cH subscript 2.\u201d Each of these balloons similarly contain a single space-filling model composed of two bonded white spheres. These white spheres are slightly smaller than the blue spheres. An arrow follows that points right to two light-green balloons, which are each labeled \u201c2 NH subscript 3.\u201d Each light-green balloon contains a space-filling model composed of a single central blue sphere to which three slightly smaller white spheres are bonded.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp89809920\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp31720640\"><strong>Reaction of Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Propane, C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), is used in gas grills to provide the heat for cooking. What volume of O<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>) measured at 25 \u00b0C and 760 torr is required to react with 2.7 L of propane measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure? Assume that the propane undergoes complete combustion.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp137922560\"><span data-type=\"title\">Solution:<\/span><\/p>\n<p>The ratio of the volumes of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub> and O<sub>2<\/sub> will be equal to the ratio of their coefficients in the balanced equation for the reaction:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp57291280\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1584 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-300x38.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"324\" height=\"41\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-300x38.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-65x8.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-225x29.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e-350x45.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3e.png 586w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 324px) 100vw, 324px\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp90728656\">From the equation, we see that one volume of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub> will react with five volumes of O<sub>2<\/sub>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp8505312\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1583 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-300x52.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"283\" height=\"49\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-300x52.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-65x11.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-225x39.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f-350x60.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3f.png 435w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 283px) 100vw, 283px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp78474976\">A volume of 13.5 L of O<sub>2<\/sub> will be required to react with 2.7 L of C<sub>3<\/sub>H<sub>8<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp109294464\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>An acetylene tank for an oxyacetylene welding torch provides 9340 L of acetylene gas, C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>2<\/sub>, at 0 \u00b0C and 1 atm. How many tanks of oxygen, each providing 7.00 \u00d7 10<sup>3<\/sup> L of O<sub>2<\/sub> at 0 \u00b0C and 1 atm, will be required to burn the acetylene?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp172649872\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">2C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>2<\/sub> + 5O<sub>2<\/sub> \u2192 4CO<sub>2<\/sub> + 2H<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm19557184\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm79476592\">3.34 tanks (2.34 \u00d7 10<sup>4<\/sup> L)<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp240638800\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp19707328\"><strong>Volumes of Reacting Gases:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Ammonia is an important fertilizer and industrial chemical. Suppose that a volume of 683 billion cubic feet of gaseous ammonia, measured at 25 \u00b0C and 1 atm, was manufactured. What volume of H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), measured under the same conditions, was required to prepare this amount of ammonia by reaction with N<sub>2<\/sub>?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp109603280\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">N<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>) \u2192 2NH<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp212669488\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Because equal volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> and NH<sub>3<\/sub> contain equal numbers of molecules and each three molecules of H<sub>2<\/sub> that react produce two molecules of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, the ratio of the volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub> and NH<sub>3<\/sub> will be equal to 3:2. Two volumes of NH<sub>3<\/sub>, in this case in units of billion ft<sup>3<\/sup>, will be formed from three volumes of H<sub>2<\/sub>:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp171418912\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1585 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-300x35.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"351\" height=\"41\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-300x35.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-65x8.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-225x26.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g-350x40.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3g.png 752w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 351px) 100vw, 351px\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp138098944\">The manufacture of 683 billion ft<sup>3<\/sup> of NH<sub>3<\/sub> required 1020 billion ft<sup>3<\/sup> of H<sub>2<\/sub>. (At 25 \u00b0C and 1 atm, this is the volume of a cube with an edge length of approximately 1.9 miles.)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp37301360\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>What volume of O<sub>2<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>) measured at 25 \u00b0C and 760 torr is required to react with 17.0 L of ethylene, C<sub>2<\/sub>H<sub>4<\/sub>(<em data-effect=\"italics\">g<\/em>), measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure? The products are CO<sub>2<\/sub> and water vapor.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp105257584\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm7381904\">51.0 L<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp13049024\" class=\"textbox textbox--examples\" data-type=\"example\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm2007840\"><strong>Volume of Gaseous Product:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>What volume of hydrogen at 27 \u00b0C and 723 torr may be prepared by the reaction of 8.88 g of gallium with an excess of hydrochloric acid?<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm20890912\" style=\"text-align: center\" data-type=\"equation\">2Ga(<em>s<\/em>) + 6HCl(<em>aq<\/em>) \u27f62GaCl<sub>3<\/sub>(<em>aq<\/em>) + 3H<sub>2<\/sub>(<em>g<\/em>)<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp98177696\"><strong>Solution:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Convert the provided mass of the limiting reactant, Ga, to moles of hydrogen produced:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm46693760\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1586 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-300x36.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"350\" height=\"42\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-300x36.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-65x8.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-225x27.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h-350x42.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3h.png 664w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp35037744\">Convert the provided temperature and pressure values to appropriate units (K and atm, respectively), and then use the molar amount of hydrogen gas and the ideal gas equation to calculate the volume of gas:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp48121168\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1587 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-300x26.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"451\" height=\"39\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-300x26.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-768x67.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-65x6.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-225x19.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i-350x30.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/9.3i.png 854w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 451px) 100vw, 451px\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm17626704\"><strong>Check Your Learning:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Sulfur dioxide is an intermediate in the preparation of sulfuric acid. What volume of SO<sub>2<\/sub> at 343 \u00b0C and 1.21 atm is produced by burning l.00 kg of sulfur in excess oxygen?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp30333040\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Answer:<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm23787120\">1.30 \u00d7 10<sup>3<\/sup> L<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm13395728\" class=\"chemistry sciences-interconnect\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp143406944\">The thin skin of our atmosphere keeps the earth from being an ice planet and makes it habitable. In fact, this is due to less than 0.5% of the air molecules. Of the energy from the sun that reaches the earth, almost 1\/3 is reflected back into space, with the rest absorbed by the atmosphere and the surface of the earth. Some of the energy that the earth absorbs is re-emitted as infrared (IR) radiation, a portion of which passes back out through the atmosphere into space. Most if this IR radiation, however, is absorbed by certain atmospheric gases, effectively trapping heat within the atmosphere in a phenomenon known as the <em data-effect=\"italics\">greenhouse effect<\/em>. This effect maintains global temperatures within the range needed to sustain life on earth. Without our atmosphere, the earth&#8217;s average temperature would be lower by more than 30 \u00b0C (nearly 60 \u00b0F). The major greenhouse gases (GHGs) are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone. Since the Industrial Revolution, human activity has been increasing the concentrations of GHGs, which have changed the energy balance and are significantly altering the earth\u2019s climate (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Greenhouse gases trap enough of the sun\u2019s energy to make the planet habitable\u2014this is known as the greenhouse effect. Human activities are increasing greenhouse gas levels, warming the planet and causing more extreme weather events.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp86921200\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This diagram shows half of a two dimensional view of the earth in blue and green at the left of the image. A slight distance outside the hemisphere is a grey arc. A line segment connects the label \u201cAtmosphere\u201d to the region between the hemisphere and the grey arc. In this region, near the surface of the earth the chemical formulas C O subscript 2, C H subscript 3, and N subscript 2 O appear. Five red arrows formed from wavy lines extend from green regions on the earth out into and just beyond the region labeled \u201cAtmosphere.\u201d The label \u201cInfrared radiation\u201d points to one of these red arrows. At a fair distance outside of the grey arc appears a yellow circle with a jagged boundary. This circle is labeled \u201cSun.\u201d From it extend yellow arrows with wavy lines which extend toward the earth. Three of the arrows extend to the green region on the earth. One of the arrows appears to be reflected off the grey arc, causing its path to turn away from the earth.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming-1.jpg\" alt=\"This diagram shows half of a two dimensional view of the earth in blue and green at the left of the image. A slight distance outside the hemisphere is a grey arc. A line segment connects the label \u201cAtmosphere\u201d to the region between the hemisphere and the grey arc. In this region, near the surface of the earth the chemical formulas C O subscript 2, C H subscript 3, and N subscript 2 O appear. Five red arrows formed from wavy lines extend from green regions on the earth out into and just beyond the region labeled \u201cAtmosphere.\u201d The label \u201cInfrared radiation\u201d points to one of these red arrows. At a fair distance outside of the grey arc appears a yellow circle with a jagged boundary. This circle is labeled \u201cSun.\u201d From it extend yellow arrows with wavy lines which extend toward the earth. Three of the arrows extend to the green region on the earth. One of the arrows appears to be reflected off the grey arc, causing its path to turn away from the earth.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm12984240\">There is strong evidence from multiple sources that higher atmospheric levels of CO<sub>2<\/sub> are caused by human activity, with fossil fuel burning accounting for about \u00be of the recent increase in CO<sub>2<\/sub>. Reliable data from ice cores reveals that CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentration in the atmosphere is at the highest level in the past 800,000 years; other evidence indicates that it may be at its highest level in 20 million years. In recent years, the CO<sub>2<\/sub> concentration has increased preindustrial levels of ~280 ppm to more than 400 ppm today (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">CO<sub>2<\/sub> levels over the past 700,000 years were typically from 200\u2013300 ppm, with a steep, unprecedented increase over the past 50 years.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp99125712\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This figure has the heading \u201cCarbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere.\u201d The first graph has a horizontal axis label \u201cYear ( B C )\u201d and a vertical axis label \u201cCarbon dioxide concentration ( p p m ).\u201d The horizontal axis labels begin at 700,000 on the left and increases by multiples of 100,000 up to 0 on the right. The vertical axis begins at 0 and increases by multiples of 50 extending up to 400. A jagged, cyclical pattern is shown that begins before 600,000 B C at under 200 p p m. Up to 0 B C values appear to vary cyclically up to a high of about 300 p p m. Extending beyond 0 B C to the right, the carbon dioxide concentration appears to be on a steady increase, having reached nearly 400 p p m in recent years. The second graph is shown to magnify the portion of the graph that is most recent. This graph begins just before the year 1960 and includes markings for multiples of 10 up to the year 2010. The vertical axis begins just below 320 p p m and includes markings for all multiples of 20 up to 400 p p m. A smooth black line is shown extending through a jagged red data pattern. The trend is a steady, nearly linear increase from the lower left to the upper right on the graph.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_GlobalWarming2-1.jpg\" alt=\"This figure has the heading \u201cCarbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere.\u201d The first graph has a horizontal axis label \u201cYear ( B C )\u201d and a vertical axis label \u201cCarbon dioxide concentration ( p p m ).\u201d The horizontal axis labels begin at 700,000 on the left and increases by multiples of 100,000 up to 0 on the right. The vertical axis begins at 0 and increases by multiples of 50 extending up to 400. A jagged, cyclical pattern is shown that begins before 600,000 B C at under 200 p p m. Up to 0 B C values appear to vary cyclically up to a high of about 300 p p m. Extending beyond 0 B C to the right, the carbon dioxide concentration appears to be on a steady increase, having reached nearly 400 p p m in recent years. The second graph is shown to magnify the portion of the graph that is most recent. This graph begins just before the year 1960 and includes markings for multiples of 10 up to the year 2010. The vertical axis begins just below 320 p p m and includes markings for all multiples of 20 up to 400 p p m. A smooth black line is shown extending through a jagged red data pattern. The trend is a steady, nearly linear increase from the lower left to the upper right on the graph.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm33251312\" class=\"chemistry link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp85689376\">Click <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16GlobalWarming\">here<\/a> to see a 2-minute video explaining greenhouse gases and global warming.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp18054480\" class=\"chemistry chemist-portrait\" data-type=\"note\">\n<div data-type=\"title\"><strong>Susan Solomon<\/strong><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp97050544\">Atmospheric and climate scientist Susan <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Solomon<\/span> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom\">(Figure)<\/a>) is the author of one of <em data-effect=\"italics\">The New York Times<\/em> books of the year (<em data-effect=\"italics\">The Coldest March<\/em>, 2001), one of Time magazine\u2019s 100 most influential people in the world (2008), and a working group leader of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which was the recipient of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize. She helped determine and explain the cause of the formation of the ozone hole over Antarctica, and has authored many important papers on climate change. She has been awarded the top scientific honors in the US and France (the National Medal of Science and the Grande Medaille, respectively), and is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, the French Academy of Sciences, and the European Academy of Sciences. Formerly a professor at the University of Colorado, she is now at MIT, and continues to work at NOAA.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp221818192\">For more information, watch this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/16SusanSolomon\">video<\/a> about Susan Solomon.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Susan Solomon\u2019s research focuses on climate change and has been instrumental in determining the cause of the ozone hole over Antarctica. (credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp104021664\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"A photograph is shown of Susan Solomon sitting next to a globe.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1463\/2021\/07\/CNX_Chem_09_03_SusanSolom-1.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph is shown of Susan Solomon sitting next to a globe.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp102169424\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\"><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp71854032\">The ideal gas law can be used to derive a number of convenient equations relating directly measured quantities to properties of interest for gaseous substances and mixtures. Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures may be used to relate measured gas pressures for gaseous mixtures to their compositions. Avogadro\u2019s law may be used in stoichiometric computations for chemical reactions involving gaseous reactants or products.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp7509520\" class=\"key-equations\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">Key Equations<\/h3>\n<ul id=\"fs-idm8896256\" data-bullet-style=\"bullet\">\n<li><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> + <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>B<\/sub><\/em> + <em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>C<\/sub><\/em> + \u2026 = \u01a9<sub>i<\/sub><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<\/em><sub>i<\/sub><\/li>\n<li><em data-effect=\"italics\">P<sub>A<\/sub><\/em> = <em data-effect=\"italics\">X<sub>A<\/sub> P<sub>Total<\/sub><\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>X<\/em><sub>A<\/sub> = n<sub>A<\/sub>\/n<sub>total<\/sub><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp118960256\" class=\"exercises\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp224745536\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp224745792\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp224746048\">\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"footnote-refs\">\n<h3 data-type=\"footnote-refs-title\"><strong>Footnotes<\/strong><\/h3>\n<ul data-list-type=\"bulleted\" data-bullet-style=\"none\">\n<li data-type=\"footnote-ref\"><a href=\"#footnote-ref1\" data-type=\"footnote-ref-link\">1<\/a><span data-type=\"footnote-ref-content\">\u201cQuotations by Joseph-Louis Lagrange,\u201d last modified February 2006, accessed February 10, 2015, http:\/\/www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk\/Quotations\/Lagrange.html<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h3 data-type=\"glossary-title\"><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp142977184\">\n<dt>Dalton\u2019s law of partial pressures<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp1131824\">total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the component gases<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp1132336\">\n<dt>mole fraction (<em data-effect=\"italics\">X<\/em>)<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp104769344\">concentration unit defined as the ratio of the molar amount of a mixture component to the total number of moles of all mixture components<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp104769888\">\n<dt>partial pressure<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp57901136\">pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp57901520\">\n<dt>vapor pressure of water<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp57901904\">pressure exerted by water vapor in equilibrium with liquid water in a closed container at a specific temperature<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1392,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[48],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-586","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":546,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/586","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1392"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/586\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2142,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/586\/revisions\/2142"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/546"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/586\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=586"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=586"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=586"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/aperrott\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=586"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}