{"id":231,"date":"2019-04-09T01:31:27","date_gmt":"2019-04-09T05:31:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/bcitphys8400\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=231"},"modified":"2019-04-16T12:39:55","modified_gmt":"2019-04-16T16:39:55","slug":"4-5-atomic-spectra-and-x-rays","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/bcitphys8400\/chapter\/4-5-atomic-spectra-and-x-rays\/","title":{"raw":"4.5 Atomic Spectra and X-rays","rendered":"4.5 Atomic Spectra and X-rays"},"content":{"raw":"<div data-type=\"abstract\" id=\"17421\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the absorption and emission of radiation in terms of atomic energy levels and energy differences<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use quantum numbers to estimate the energy, frequency, and wavelength of photons produced by atomic transitions in multi-electron atoms<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain radiation concepts in the context of atomic fluorescence and X-rays<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">The study of atomic spectra provides most of our knowledge about atoms. In modern science, atomic spectra are used to identify species of atoms in a range of objects, from distant galaxies to blood samples at a crime scene.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/header><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901982420\">The theoretical basis of atomic spectroscopy is the transition of electrons between energy levels in atoms. For example, if an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-935-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-936-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell, the atom emits a photon with a wavelength<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902772590\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-937-Frame\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-937-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03bb=cf=h\u00b7ch\u00b7f=hc\u0394E=hcE3\u2212E2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.36]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">where<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-938-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E=E3\u2212E2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is energy carried away by the photon and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-939-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">hc=1940eV\u00b7nm<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">. After this radiation passes through a spectrometer, it appears as a sharp spectral line on a screen. The Bohr model of this process is shown in<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">Figure 4.18. If the electron later absorbs a photon with energy<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-940-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">, the electron returns to the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-941-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">n=3<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell. (We examined the Bohr model earlier, in<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/bcitphys8400\/part\/chapter-2-photons-and-matter-waves\/\">Photons and Matter Waves<\/a><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">.)<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_AtomicRad\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"563\"]<img alt=\"The hydrogen atom is represented as a proton in the nucleus, charge plus e, and an electron in a circular orbit around the nucleus. Three orbits, labeled n =1, n = 2, and n = 3 in order of increasing radius, are shown. An arrow indicates an electron transitioning from the outer to the middle orbit, and a wave labeled delta E equals h f is shown near the transition, leaving the atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"58153\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/7d048373d83bc110b3f3921a365b3fe0ed02c767\" width=\"563\" height=\"510\" \/> Figure 4.18 An electron transition from the n=3 to the n=2 shell of a hydrogen atom.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901785956\">To understand atomic transitions in multi-electron atoms, it is necessary to consider many effects, including the Coulomb repulsion between electrons and internal magnetic interactions (spin-orbit and spin-spin couplings). Fortunately, many properties of these systems can be understood by neglecting interactions between electrons and representing each electron by its own single-particle wave function<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-944-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03c8nlm<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901678412\">Atomic transitions must obey<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term360\">selection rules<\/span>. These rules follow from principles of quantum mechanics and symmetry. Selection rules classify transitions as either allowed or forbidden. (Forbidden transitions do occur, but the probability of the typical forbidden transition is very small.) For a hydrogen-like atom, atomic transitions that involve electromagnetic interactions (the emission and absorption of photons) obey the following selection rule:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-945-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=\u00b11,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.37]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903112016\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is associated with the magnitude of orbital angular momentum,<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902772300\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-946-Frame\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-946-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L=l(l+1)\u210f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.38]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">For multi-electron atoms, similar rules apply. To illustrate this rule, consider the observed atomic transitions in hydrogen (H), sodium (Na), and mercury (Hg) (Figure 4.19). The horizontal lines in this diagram correspond to atomic energy levels, and the transitions allowed by this selection rule are shown by lines drawn between these levels. The energies of these states are on the order of a few electron volts, and photons emitted in transitions are in the visible range. Technically, atomic transitions can violate the selection rule, but such transitions are uncommon.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Elevels\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"848\"]<img alt=\"The energy level diagrams for hydrogen, sodium and mercury are shown as horizontal lines. The horizontal lines in this diagram correspond to atomic energy levels, and the transitions are shown by arrows drawn between these levels. Lines belonging to the same subshell (s, p, d, etc) are drawn in a column, and the different subshells are drawn next to each other in columns labeled by the subshell letter. The vertical direction represents the energy in e V. Figure a is the hydrogen spectrum. Columns for the s, p, d and f subshells are shown. The n=1 level has only one subshell, the 1 s state, with energy -13.6 e V. The n=2 level has states in the s and p subshells, with energy -3.4 e V. The n=3 level has states in the s, p and d subshells, with energy -1.5 e V. The n=4 level has states in the s, p, d, and f subshells, with energy -0.85 e V. An infinite number of energy exist for all n to infinity, getting closer and closer together. Several transitions are shown, from the s states at higher n to the p states at n=2, from the p states at higher n to the 1 s state, from the d states at higher n to the 2 p state, and from the f states at higher n to the 2 d state. Figure b is the sodium spectrum, with the energies of the hydrogen n=2 through n=6 states shown to the left for reference. The energy scale is from -5.0 to 0 e V. Columns for the s, p d, and f states are shown. The spacing between the levels is more complex than for hydrogen: the 3 s, 3 p, and 3 d levels have different energies: 3 s is a little below -5 e V, 3 p at about -3 e V, and 3 d at around -1.5 e V. Other states at the same subshell are likewise split. Transitions are shown as for hydrogen, going to lower n and changing subshell by one, f to d, d to p, s to p, etcetera. Figure c is the mercury spectrum. The energy scale is -10.0 to 0 e V. The s, p, d, f states are shown for the two net spin states of the 6 s electrons. As in the case of sodium, the states with different quantum numbers l (that is, different subshells) but the same quantum number n have different energies. In addition, we see the states split further. The one of the 6 p states (the so-called triplet state) splits into three lines which have energies that are close but clearly distinguishable, and the 7 p state for this net spin state also splits into three lines.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"62869\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/cdd38e64b9a189db8e1502d91c31f4c38e3e97cb\" width=\"848\" height=\"1191\" \/> Figure 4.19 Energy-level diagrams for (a) hydrogen, (b) sodium, and (c) mercury. For comparison, hydrogen energy levels are shown in the sodium diagram.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901484702\">The hydrogen atom has the simplest energy-level diagram. If we neglect electron spin, all states with the same value of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>have the same total energy. However, spin-orbit coupling splits the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-947-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>states into two angular momentum states (<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">p<\/em>) of slightly different energies. (These levels are not vertically displaced, because the energy splitting is too small to show up in this diagram.) Likewise, spin-orbit coupling splits the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-948-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>states into three angular momentum states (<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">p<\/em>, and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">d<\/em>).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902598424\">The energy-level diagram for hydrogen is similar to sodium, because both atoms have one electron in the outer shell. The valence electron of sodium moves in the electric field of a nucleus shielded by electrons in the inner shells, so it does not experience a simple 1\/<em data-effect=\"italics\">r<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>Coulomb potential and its total energy depends on both<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em>. Interestingly, mercury has two separate energy-level diagrams; these diagrams correspond to two net spin states of its 6<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(valence) electrons.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170902013929\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><header><\/header><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><header>\r\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">6<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903109999\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>The Sodium Doublet<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\nThe spectrum of sodium is analyzed with a spectrometer. Two closely spaced lines with wavelengths 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm are observed. (a) If the doublet corresponds to the excited (valence) electron that transitions from some excited state down to the 3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>state, what was the original electron angular momentum? (b) What is the energy difference between these two excited states?\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\nSodium and hydrogen belong to the same column or chemical group of the periodic table, so sodium is \u201chydrogen-like.\u201d The outermost electron in sodium is in the 3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-949-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>) subshell and can be excited to higher energy levels. As for hydrogen, subsequent transitions to lower energy levels must obey the selection rule:\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902673379\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-950-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=\u00b11.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">We must first determine the quantum number of the initial state that satisfies the selection rule. Then, we can use this number to determine the magnitude of orbital angular momentum of the initial state.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Solution<\/span><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<ol id=\"fs-id1170901779095\" type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>Allowed transitions must obey the selection rule. If the quantum number of the initial state is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-951-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>, the transition is forbidden because<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-952-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>. If the quantum number of the initial state is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-953-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=2,3,4<\/span><\/span><\/span>,\u2026the transition is forbidden because<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-954-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l&gt;1.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>Therefore, the quantum of the initial state must be<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-955-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>. The orbital angular momentum of the initial state is<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901568794\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-956-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L=l(l+1)\u210f=1.41\u210f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Because the final state for both transitions is the same (3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em>), the difference in energies of the photons is equal to the difference in energies of the two excited states. Using the equation<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903121505\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-957-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394E=hf=h(c\u03bb),<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>we have<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901543587\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-958-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394E=hc(1\u03bb1\u22121\u03bb2)=(4.14\u00d710\u221215eVs)(3.00\u00d7108m\/s)\u00d7(1589.00\u00d710\u22129m\u22121589.59\u00d710\u22129m)=2.11\u00d710\u22123eV.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><strong>Significance<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">To understand the difficulty of measuring this energy difference, we compare this difference with the average energy of the two photons emitted in the transition. Given an average wavelength of 589.30 nm, the average energy of the photons is<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div><\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902930003\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-959-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E=hc\u03bb=(4.14\u00d710\u221215eVs)(3.00\u00d7108m\/s)589.30\u00d710\u22129m=2.11eV.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">The energy difference<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-960-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">is about 0.1% (1 part in 1000) of this average energy. However, a sensitive spectrometer can measure the difference.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-family: Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;font-size: 1em;font-style: italic\">Atomic Fluorescence<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-id1170901498082\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903134572\"><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term361\">Fluorescence<\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>occurs when an electron in an atom is excited several steps above the ground state by the absorption of a high-energy ultraviolet (UV) photon. Once excited, the electron \u201cde-excites\u201d in two ways. The electron can drop back to the ground state, emitting a photon of the same energy that excited it, or it can drop in a series of smaller steps, emitting several low-energy photons. Some of these photons may be in the visible range. Fluorescent dye in clothes can make colors seem brighter in sunlight by converting UV radiation into visible light. Fluorescent lights are more efficient in converting electrical energy into visible light than incandescent filaments (about four times as efficient).<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.20<span>\u00a0<\/span>shows a scorpion illuminated by a UV lamp. Proteins near the surface of the skin emit a characteristic blue light.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Scorpion\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"585\"]<img alt=\"The image shows a scorpion hiding in the cracks of rocks, illuminate by a U V lamp. The skin of the scorpion glows blue when illuminated by an ultraviolet light in contrast to the rocks, which glow in violet color.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"38290\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/718d46f7bc65549e8efb3c2e4879e68ada85d174\" width=\"585\" height=\"390\" \/> Figure 4.20 A scorpion glows blue under a UV lamp. (credit: Ken Bosma)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1170902792273\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">X-rays<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902681405\">The study of atomic energy transitions enables us to understand X-rays and X-ray technology. Like all electromagnetic radiation, X-rays are made of photons. X-ray photons are produced when electrons in the outermost shells of an atom drop to the inner shells. (Hydrogen atoms do not emit X-rays, because the electron energy levels are too closely spaced together to permit the emission of high-frequency radiation.) Transitions of this kind are normally forbidden because the lower states are already filled. However, if an inner shell has a vacancy (an inner electron is missing, perhaps from being knocked away by a high-speed electron), an electron from one of the outer shells can drop in energy to fill the vacancy. The energy gap for such a transition is relatively large, so wavelength of the radiated X-ray photon is relatively short.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902765457\">X-rays can also be produced by bombarding a metal target with high-energy electrons, as shown in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.21. In the figure, electrons are boiled off a filament and accelerated by an electric field into a tungsten target. According to the classical theory of electromagnetism,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">any<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>charged particle that accelerates emits radiation. Thus, when the electron strikes the tungsten target, and suddenly slows down, the electron emits<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term362\">braking radiation<\/span>. (Braking radiation refers to radiation produced by any charged particle that is slowed by a medium.) In this case, braking radiation contains a continuous range of frequencies, because the electrons will collide with the target atoms in slightly different ways.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901778267\">Braking radiation is not the only type of radiation produced in this interaction. In some cases, an electron collides with another inner-shell electron of a target atom, and knocks the electron out of the atom\u2014billiard ball style. The empty state is filled when an electron in a higher shell drops into the state (drop in energy level) and emits an X-ray photon.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayTube\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"521\"]<img alt=\"A sketch of an x ray tube. A heated filament at one end acts as a cathode that emits an electron beam. The electrons accelerate in a gap toward a tungsten target mounted on an anode. X rays are emitted from the target.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"18396\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/5508d7b84c93fd722d6c440e2f3b8cddc8e2a451\" width=\"521\" height=\"357\" \/> Figure 4.21 A sketch of an X-ray tube. X-rays are emitted from the tungsten target.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902893807\">Historically, X-ray spectral lines were labeled with letters (<em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">N<\/em>, \u2026). These letters correspond to the atomic shells (<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-961-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1,2,3,4,\u2026<\/span><\/span><\/span>). X-rays produced by a transition from any higher shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-962-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are labeled as<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays. X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-963-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-964-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-965-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-966-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">N<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-967-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=4<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-968-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; and so forth. Transitions from higher shells to<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M\u00a0<\/em>shells are labeled similarly. These transitions are represented by an energy-level diagram in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.22.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayEnergy\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"385\"]<img alt=\"Different energy levels are shown in the form of horizontal lines. The line at the bottom is labeled as energy level n equal to one, or the K shell. Above this line, another horizontal line is labeled as energy level for n equal or the L shell. Similarly, other lines are shown for the M and N shells. As we move from bottom to the top, the distance between the lines decreases. The transitions are shown as arrows from one line down to a lower line and are labeled. Transitions from n=2, 3, 4, and 5 to the n=1 level form the K series and are, in order, the K sub alpha, K sub beta, K sub gamma, and K sub delta lines. Transitions from n= 3, 4, and 5 to the n=2 level form the L series and are, in order, the L sub alpha, L sub beta, and L sub gamma lines. Transitions from n= 4 and 5 to the n=3 level form the M series and are, in order, the M sub alpha and L sub beta lines. The transition fro n=5 to the n=4 level is also shown and labeled as N sub alpha.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"43797\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/87ecbe358dce83fe6ae8ba89287c4bb7dc10ed6d\" width=\"385\" height=\"514\" \/> Figure 4.22 X-ray transitions in an atom.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901999632\">The distribution of X-ray wavelengths produced by striking metal with a beam of electrons is given in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.23. X-ray transitions in the target metal appear as peaks on top of the braking radiation curve. Photon frequencies corresponding to the spikes in the X-ray distribution are called characteristic frequencies, because they can be used to identify the target metal. The sharp cutoff wavelength (just below the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-969-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>peak) corresponds to an electron that loses all of its energy to a single photon. Radiation of shorter wavelengths is forbidden by the conservation of energy.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Braking\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"689\"]<img alt=\"A graph of X-ray intensity versus wavelength in nanometers is shown. The wavelength scale is logarithmic and its range is 0.01 nanometers to just past 1.0 nanometers. The curve starts from a point a little more than half way between 0.01 and 0.1 n m and increases. Before the frequency attains its maximum value at approximately 0.1 n m, three sharp peaks, labeled K sub alpha, K sub gamma, and K sub alpha are formed, after which the X-ray intensity decreases gradually. Two sharp peaks are seen about half way between 0.1 and 1.0, labeled L sub beta and L sub alpha. Another peak, at a wavelength longer than 1.0 n m, is labeled M sub alpha.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"38189\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/8b0784a63c5eef7a5e222edba7a86232b381f0c7\" width=\"689\" height=\"346\" \/> Figure 4.23 X-ray spectrum from a silver target. The peaks correspond to characteristic frequencies of X-rays emitted by silver when struck by an electron beam.[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170901912852\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><header>\r\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">.7<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903081131\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>X-Rays from Aluminum\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\nEstimate the characteristic energy and frequency of the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-970-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray for aluminum (<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-971-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13<\/span><\/span><\/span>).\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\nA<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-972-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray is produced by the transition of an electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-973-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-974-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell. An electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell \u201csees\u201d a charge<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-975-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13\u22121=12,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>because one electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell shields the nuclear charge. (Recall, two electrons are not in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell because the other electron state is vacant.) The frequency of the emitted photon can be estimated from the energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells.\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Solution<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\nThe energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells in a hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV. Assuming that other electrons in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L <\/em>shell or in higher-energy shells do not shield the nuclear charge, the energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells in an atom with<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-976-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>is approximately\r\n<div data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903806651\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-977-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K\u2248(Z\u22121)2(10.2 eV)=(13\u22121)2(10.2eV)=1.47\u00d7103eV.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">(8.39)<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901741512\">Based on the relationship<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-978-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f=(\u0394EL\u2192K)\/h<\/span><\/span><\/span>, the frequency of the X-ray is<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902768172\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-979-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f=1.47\u00d7103eV4.14\u00d710\u221215eV\u00b7s=3.55\u00d71017Hz.\r\n<\/span><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\r\n<strong>Significance\r\n\r\n<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">The wavelength of the typical X-ray is 0.1\u201310 nm. In this case, the wavelength is:<\/span><span>\r\n<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901479644\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-980-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03bb=cf=3.0\u00d7108m\/s3.55\u00d71017Hz=8.5\u00d710\u221210=0.85nm.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Hence, the transition<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-981-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u2192<\/span><\/span><em style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">in aluminum produces X-ray radiation.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">X-ray production provides an important test of quantum mechanics. According to the Bohr model, the energy of a<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-982-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">X-ray depends on the nuclear charge or atomic number,<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">. If<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is large, Coulomb forces in the atom are large, energy differences (<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-983-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">) are large, and, therefore, the energy of radiated photons is large. To illustrate, consider a single electron in a multi-electron atom. Neglecting interactions between the electrons, the allowed energy levels are<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903052420\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-984-Frame\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-984-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>En=\u2212Z2(13.6eV)n2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4..40]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">where<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">= 1, 2, \u2026and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is the atomic number of the nucleus. However, an electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">(<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-985-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">n=2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">) shell \u201csees\u201d a charge<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-986-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">Z\u22121<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">, because one electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell shields the nuclear charge. (Recall that there is only one electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell because the other electron was \u201cknocked out.\u201d) Therefore, the approximate energies of the electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shells are<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902637031\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-987-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EL\u2248\u2212(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)22EK\u2248\u2212(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)12.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901575178\">The energy carried away by a photon in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell is therefore<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903037647\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-988-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K=(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)(112\u2212122)=(Z\u22121)2(10.2eV),<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901758722\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is the atomic number. In general, the X-ray photon energy for a transition from an outer shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell is<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902744334\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-989-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K=hf=constant\u00d7(Z\u22121)2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901541393\">or<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-990-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>(Z\u22121)=constant f,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.41]<\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901750253\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">f<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is the frequency of a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-991-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray. This equation is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term363\">Moseley\u2019s law<\/span>. For large values of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em>, we have approximately<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902794648\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-992-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z\u2248constant f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901619824\">This prediction can be checked by measuring<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">f<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>for a variety of metal targets. This model is supported if a plot of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>versus<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-993-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>data (called a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term364\">Moseley plot<\/span>) is linear. Comparison of model predictions and experimental results, for both the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>series, is shown in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.24. The data support the model that X-rays are produced when an outer shell electron drops in energy to fill a vacancy in an inner shell.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING<span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">4.3<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\"><header><span style=\"font-size: 1rem\">X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal target with high-energy electrons. If the target is replaced by another with two times the atomic number, what happens to the frequency of X-rays?<\/span><\/header><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"502\"]<img alt=\"The Moseley plot of characteristic X rays shows a plot of the atomic number as a function of the square root of the frequencies in Hertz divided by 10 to the 16. The vertical scale goes from 0 to 80 and labels the elements whose atomic number are a multiple of 5: P, C a, M n, Z n, B r, Z r, R h, S n, C s, N d, T b, Y b, and R e. The horizontal scale goes from 0 to 24. The data falls along several straight lines, corresponding to the series. The L series, in blue, lies above the K series, in red and all the L lines are steeper than the K lines. The L sub alpha series has the steepest slope of the L series. Two K series curves are shown, with the K sub alpha slope slightly steeper than the K sub beta slope.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"24089\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/bed94aa9243461f87d7c0b88ac3a9a346e67b559\" width=\"502\" height=\"750\" \/> Figure 4.24 A Moseley plot. These data were adapted from Moseley\u2019s original data (H. G. J. Moseley, Philos. Mag. (6) 77:703, 1914).[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\">\r\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170902682890\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\"><header><\/header><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><header>\r\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">.8<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\r\n<\/header><section>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901633873\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Characteristic X-Ray Energy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\nCalculate the approximate energy of a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-994-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray from a tungsten anode in an X-ray tube.\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\nTwo electrons occupy a filled<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell. A vacancy in this shell would leave one electron, so the effective charge for an electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell would be<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>\u2212 1 rather than<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em>. For tungsten,<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-995-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=74,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>so the effective charge is 73. This number can be used to calculate the energy-level difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells, and, therefore, the energy carried away by a photon in the transition<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-996-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L\u2192K.<\/span><\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Solution<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\nThe effective<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is 73, so the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-997-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray energy is given by\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901752832\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-998-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EK\u03b1=\u0394E=Ei\u2212Ef=E2\u2212E1,<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">where<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901586533\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-999-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E1=\u2212Z212E0=\u22127321(13.6eV)=\u221272.5keV<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">and<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902885008\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1000-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E2=\u2212Z222E0=\u22127324(13.6eV)=\u221218.1keV.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Thus,<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170899265589\">\r\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1001-Frame\">\r\n\r\n<span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EK\u03b1=\u221218.1keV\u2212(\u221272.5keV)=54.4keV.<\/span><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><strong>Significance<\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">This large photon energy is typical of X-rays. X-ray energies become progressively larger for heavier elements because their energy increases approximately as<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1002-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">Z2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">. An acceleration voltage of more than 50,000 volts is needed to \u201cknock out\u201d an inner electron from a tungsten atom.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-family: Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;font-size: 1em;font-style: italic\">X-ray Technology<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section><section id=\"fs-id1170903019983\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902759155\">X-rays have many applications, such as in medical diagnostics (Figure 4.25), inspection of luggage at airports (Figure 4.26), and even detection of cracks in crucial aircraft components. The most common X-ray images are due to shadows. Because X-ray photons have high energy, they penetrate materials that are opaque to visible light. The more energy an X-ray photon has, the more material it penetrates. The depth of penetration is related to the density of the material, as well as to the energy of the photon. The denser the material, the fewer X-ray photons get through and the darker the shadow. X-rays are effective at identifying bone breaks and tumors; however, overexposure to X-rays can damage cells in biological organisms.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_TeethChest\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"898\"]<img alt=\"Figure (a) shows an X-ray image of front view of the jaw, especially the teeth. Figure (b) shows a drawing of an dental x ray machine.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"45759\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/9b32648a9985df7c293bd3ef0d6f99e2faf13073\" width=\"898\" height=\"338\" \/> Figure 4.25 (a) An X-ray image of a person\u2019s teeth. (b) A typical X-ray machine in a dentist\u2019s office produces relatively low-energy radiation to minimize patient exposure. (credit a: modification of work by \u201cDmitry G\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\">\r\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Luggage\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"488\"]<img alt=\"A colored X-ray image of a piece of luggage.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"44468\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/e1b11133f6c7bd7c172b595e7a71fbd7d88675f2\" width=\"488\" height=\"354\" \/> Figure 4.26 An X-ray image of a piece of luggage. The denser the material, the darker the shadow. Object colors relate to material composition\u2014metallic objects show up as blue in this image. (credit: \u201cIDuke\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\">\r\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902923280\">A standard X-ray image provides a two-dimensional view of the object. However, in medical applications, this view does not often provide enough information to draw firm conclusions. For example, in a two-dimensional X-ray image of the body, bones can easily hide soft tissues or organs. The CAT (computed axial tomography) scanner addresses this problem by collecting numerous X-ray images in \u201cslices\u201d throughout the body. Complex computer-image processing of the relative absorption of the X-rays, in different directions, can produce a highly detailed three-dimensional X-ray image of the body.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901501480\">X-rays can also be used to probe the structures of atoms and molecules. Consider X-rays incident on the surface of a crystalline solid. Some X-ray photons reflect at the surface, and others reflect off the \u201cplane\u201d of atoms just below the surface. Interference between these photons, for different angles of incidence, produces a beautiful image on a screen (Figure 4.27). The interaction of X-rays with a solid is called X-ray diffraction. The most famous example using X-ray diffraction is the discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\r\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayDiff\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"731\"]<img alt=\"An x ray diffraction image of a protein. The image shows an array of small black dots, arranged in slightly curved rows, on a white background. A white arm extends from the top left to the center of the image, where there is a small white disk. This white disk is the shadow of the beam block, which blocks the part of the incident x ray beam that was not diffracted by the crystal.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"543\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/95434c3c1f22b71e0791c5e020043768d450c816\" width=\"731\" height=\"731\" \/> Figure 4.27 X-ray diffraction from the crystal of a protein (hen egg lysozyme) produced this interference pattern. Analysis of the pattern yields information about the structure of the protein. (credit: \u201cDel45\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\">\r\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox\"><em>Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/af275420-6050-4707-995c-57b9cc13c358@11.1<\/em><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<div data-type=\"abstract\" id=\"17421\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<header>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><\/div>\n<\/header>\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the absorption and emission of radiation in terms of atomic energy levels and energy differences<\/li>\n<li>Use quantum numbers to estimate the energy, frequency, and wavelength of photons produced by atomic transitions in multi-electron atoms<\/li>\n<li>Explain radiation concepts in the context of atomic fluorescence and X-rays<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">The study of atomic spectra provides most of our knowledge about atoms. In modern science, atomic spectra are used to identify species of atoms in a range of objects, from distant galaxies to blood samples at a crime scene.<\/span><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901982420\">The theoretical basis of atomic spectroscopy is the transition of electrons between energy levels in atoms. For example, if an electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-935-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-936-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell, the atom emits a photon with a wavelength<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902772590\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-937-Frame\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-937-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03bb=cf=h\u00b7ch\u00b7f=hc\u0394E=hcE3\u2212E2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.36]<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">where<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-938-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E=E3\u2212E2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is energy carried away by the photon and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-939-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">hc=1940eV\u00b7nm<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">. After this radiation passes through a spectrometer, it appears as a sharp spectral line on a screen. The Bohr model of this process is shown in<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">Figure 4.18. If the electron later absorbs a photon with energy<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-940-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">, the electron returns to the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-941-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">n=3<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell. (We examined the Bohr model earlier, in<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/bcitphys8400\/part\/chapter-2-photons-and-matter-waves\/\">Photons and Matter Waves<\/a><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">.)<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_AtomicRad\">\n<figure style=\"width: 563px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"The hydrogen atom is represented as a proton in the nucleus, charge plus e, and an electron in a circular orbit around the nucleus. Three orbits, labeled n =1, n = 2, and n = 3 in order of increasing radius, are shown. An arrow indicates an electron transitioning from the outer to the middle orbit, and a wave labeled delta E equals h f is shown near the transition, leaving the atom.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"58153\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/7d048373d83bc110b3f3921a365b3fe0ed02c767\" width=\"563\" height=\"510\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.18 An electron transition from the n=3 to the n=2 shell of a hydrogen atom.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901785956\">To understand atomic transitions in multi-electron atoms, it is necessary to consider many effects, including the Coulomb repulsion between electrons and internal magnetic interactions (spin-orbit and spin-spin couplings). Fortunately, many properties of these systems can be understood by neglecting interactions between electrons and representing each electron by its own single-particle wave function<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-944-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03c8nlm<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901678412\">Atomic transitions must obey<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term360\">selection rules<\/span>. These rules follow from principles of quantum mechanics and symmetry. Selection rules classify transitions as either allowed or forbidden. (Forbidden transitions do occur, but the probability of the typical forbidden transition is very small.) For a hydrogen-like atom, atomic transitions that involve electromagnetic interactions (the emission and absorption of photons) obey the following selection rule:<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-945-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=\u00b11,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.37]<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903112016\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is associated with the magnitude of orbital angular momentum,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902772300\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-946-Frame\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-946-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L=l(l+1)\u210f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.38]<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">For multi-electron atoms, similar rules apply. To illustrate this rule, consider the observed atomic transitions in hydrogen (H), sodium (Na), and mercury (Hg) (Figure 4.19). The horizontal lines in this diagram correspond to atomic energy levels, and the transitions allowed by this selection rule are shown by lines drawn between these levels. The energies of these states are on the order of a few electron volts, and photons emitted in transitions are in the visible range. Technically, atomic transitions can violate the selection rule, but such transitions are uncommon.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Elevels\">\n<figure style=\"width: 848px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"The energy level diagrams for hydrogen, sodium and mercury are shown as horizontal lines. The horizontal lines in this diagram correspond to atomic energy levels, and the transitions are shown by arrows drawn between these levels. Lines belonging to the same subshell (s, p, d, etc) are drawn in a column, and the different subshells are drawn next to each other in columns labeled by the subshell letter. The vertical direction represents the energy in e V. Figure a is the hydrogen spectrum. Columns for the s, p, d and f subshells are shown. The n=1 level has only one subshell, the 1 s state, with energy -13.6 e V. The n=2 level has states in the s and p subshells, with energy -3.4 e V. The n=3 level has states in the s, p and d subshells, with energy -1.5 e V. The n=4 level has states in the s, p, d, and f subshells, with energy -0.85 e V. An infinite number of energy exist for all n to infinity, getting closer and closer together. Several transitions are shown, from the s states at higher n to the p states at n=2, from the p states at higher n to the 1 s state, from the d states at higher n to the 2 p state, and from the f states at higher n to the 2 d state. Figure b is the sodium spectrum, with the energies of the hydrogen n=2 through n=6 states shown to the left for reference. The energy scale is from -5.0 to 0 e V. Columns for the s, p d, and f states are shown. The spacing between the levels is more complex than for hydrogen: the 3 s, 3 p, and 3 d levels have different energies: 3 s is a little below -5 e V, 3 p at about -3 e V, and 3 d at around -1.5 e V. Other states at the same subshell are likewise split. Transitions are shown as for hydrogen, going to lower n and changing subshell by one, f to d, d to p, s to p, etcetera. Figure c is the mercury spectrum. The energy scale is -10.0 to 0 e V. The s, p, d, f states are shown for the two net spin states of the 6 s electrons. As in the case of sodium, the states with different quantum numbers l (that is, different subshells) but the same quantum number n have different energies. In addition, we see the states split further. The one of the 6 p states (the so-called triplet state) splits into three lines which have energies that are close but clearly distinguishable, and the 7 p state for this net spin state also splits into three lines.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"62869\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/cdd38e64b9a189db8e1502d91c31f4c38e3e97cb\" width=\"848\" height=\"1191\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.19 Energy-level diagrams for (a) hydrogen, (b) sodium, and (c) mercury. For comparison, hydrogen energy levels are shown in the sodium diagram.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901484702\">The hydrogen atom has the simplest energy-level diagram. If we neglect electron spin, all states with the same value of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>have the same total energy. However, spin-orbit coupling splits the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-947-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>states into two angular momentum states (<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">p<\/em>) of slightly different energies. (These levels are not vertically displaced, because the energy splitting is too small to show up in this diagram.) Likewise, spin-orbit coupling splits the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-948-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>states into three angular momentum states (<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">p<\/em>, and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">d<\/em>).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902598424\">The energy-level diagram for hydrogen is similar to sodium, because both atoms have one electron in the outer shell. The valence electron of sodium moves in the electric field of a nucleus shielded by electrons in the inner shells, so it does not experience a simple 1\/<em data-effect=\"italics\">r<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>Coulomb potential and its total energy depends on both<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em>. Interestingly, mercury has two separate energy-level diagrams; these diagrams correspond to two net spin states of its 6<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(valence) electrons.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170902013929\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<header><\/header>\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<header>\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04.<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">6<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903109999\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>The Sodium Doublet<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The spectrum of sodium is analyzed with a spectrometer. Two closely spaced lines with wavelengths 589.00 nm and 589.59 nm are observed. (a) If the doublet corresponds to the excited (valence) electron that transitions from some excited state down to the 3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>state, what was the original electron angular momentum? (b) What is the energy difference between these two excited states?<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Sodium and hydrogen belong to the same column or chemical group of the periodic table, so sodium is \u201chydrogen-like.\u201d The outermost electron in sodium is in the 3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-949-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>) subshell and can be excited to higher energy levels. As for hydrogen, subsequent transitions to lower energy levels must obey the selection rule:<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902673379\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-950-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=\u00b11.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">We must first determine the quantum number of the initial state that satisfies the selection rule. Then, we can use this number to determine the magnitude of orbital angular momentum of the initial state.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Solution<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<ol id=\"fs-id1170901779095\" type=\"a\">\n<li>Allowed transitions must obey the selection rule. If the quantum number of the initial state is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-951-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>, the transition is forbidden because<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-952-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l=0<\/span><\/span><\/span>. If the quantum number of the initial state is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-953-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=2,3,4<\/span><\/span><\/span>,\u2026the transition is forbidden because<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-954-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394l&gt;1.<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>Therefore, the quantum of the initial state must be<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-955-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>l=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>. The orbital angular momentum of the initial state is<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901568794\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-956-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L=l(l+1)\u210f=1.41\u210f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li>Because the final state for both transitions is the same (3<em data-effect=\"italics\">s<\/em>), the difference in energies of the photons is equal to the difference in energies of the two excited states. Using the equation<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903121505\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-957-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394E=hf=h(c\u03bb),<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span>we have<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901543587\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-958-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394E=hc(1\u03bb1\u22121\u03bb2)=(4.14\u00d710\u221215eVs)(3.00\u00d7108m\/s)\u00d7(1589.00\u00d710\u22129m\u22121589.59\u00d710\u22129m)=2.11\u00d710\u22123eV.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><strong>Significance<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">To understand the difficulty of measuring this energy difference, we compare this difference with the average energy of the two photons emitted in the transition. Given an average wavelength of 589.30 nm, the average energy of the photons is<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902930003\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-959-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E=hc\u03bb=(4.14\u00d710\u221215eVs)(3.00\u00d7108m\/s)589.30\u00d710\u22129m=2.11eV.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">The energy difference<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-960-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">is about 0.1% (1 part in 1000) of this average energy. However, a sensitive spectrometer can measure the difference.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;font-size: 1em;font-style: italic\">Atomic Fluorescence<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-id1170901498082\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903134572\"><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term361\">Fluorescence<\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>occurs when an electron in an atom is excited several steps above the ground state by the absorption of a high-energy ultraviolet (UV) photon. Once excited, the electron \u201cde-excites\u201d in two ways. The electron can drop back to the ground state, emitting a photon of the same energy that excited it, or it can drop in a series of smaller steps, emitting several low-energy photons. Some of these photons may be in the visible range. Fluorescent dye in clothes can make colors seem brighter in sunlight by converting UV radiation into visible light. Fluorescent lights are more efficient in converting electrical energy into visible light than incandescent filaments (about four times as efficient).<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.20<span>\u00a0<\/span>shows a scorpion illuminated by a UV lamp. Proteins near the surface of the skin emit a characteristic blue light.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Scorpion\">\n<figure style=\"width: 585px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"The image shows a scorpion hiding in the cracks of rocks, illuminate by a U V lamp. The skin of the scorpion glows blue when illuminated by an ultraviolet light in contrast to the rocks, which glow in violet color.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"38290\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/718d46f7bc65549e8efb3c2e4879e68ada85d174\" width=\"585\" height=\"390\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.20 A scorpion glows blue under a UV lamp. (credit: Ken Bosma)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1170902792273\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">X-rays<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902681405\">The study of atomic energy transitions enables us to understand X-rays and X-ray technology. Like all electromagnetic radiation, X-rays are made of photons. X-ray photons are produced when electrons in the outermost shells of an atom drop to the inner shells. (Hydrogen atoms do not emit X-rays, because the electron energy levels are too closely spaced together to permit the emission of high-frequency radiation.) Transitions of this kind are normally forbidden because the lower states are already filled. However, if an inner shell has a vacancy (an inner electron is missing, perhaps from being knocked away by a high-speed electron), an electron from one of the outer shells can drop in energy to fill the vacancy. The energy gap for such a transition is relatively large, so wavelength of the radiated X-ray photon is relatively short.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902765457\">X-rays can also be produced by bombarding a metal target with high-energy electrons, as shown in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.21. In the figure, electrons are boiled off a filament and accelerated by an electric field into a tungsten target. According to the classical theory of electromagnetism,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">any<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>charged particle that accelerates emits radiation. Thus, when the electron strikes the tungsten target, and suddenly slows down, the electron emits<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term362\">braking radiation<\/span>. (Braking radiation refers to radiation produced by any charged particle that is slowed by a medium.) In this case, braking radiation contains a continuous range of frequencies, because the electrons will collide with the target atoms in slightly different ways.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901778267\">Braking radiation is not the only type of radiation produced in this interaction. In some cases, an electron collides with another inner-shell electron of a target atom, and knocks the electron out of the atom\u2014billiard ball style. The empty state is filled when an electron in a higher shell drops into the state (drop in energy level) and emits an X-ray photon.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayTube\">\n<figure style=\"width: 521px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"A sketch of an x ray tube. A heated filament at one end acts as a cathode that emits an electron beam. The electrons accelerate in a gap toward a tungsten target mounted on an anode. X rays are emitted from the target.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"18396\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/5508d7b84c93fd722d6c440e2f3b8cddc8e2a451\" width=\"521\" height=\"357\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.21 A sketch of an X-ray tube. X-rays are emitted from the tungsten target.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902893807\">Historically, X-ray spectral lines were labeled with letters (<em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em>,<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">N<\/em>, \u2026). These letters correspond to the atomic shells (<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-961-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1,2,3,4,\u2026<\/span><\/span><\/span>). X-rays produced by a transition from any higher shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-962-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are labeled as<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays. X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-963-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-964-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-965-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=3<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-966-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b2<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; X-rays produced in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">N<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-967-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=4<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell are called<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-968-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-rays; and so forth. Transitions from higher shells to<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">M\u00a0<\/em>shells are labeled similarly. These transitions are represented by an energy-level diagram in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.22.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayEnergy\">\n<figure style=\"width: 385px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Different energy levels are shown in the form of horizontal lines. The line at the bottom is labeled as energy level n equal to one, or the K shell. Above this line, another horizontal line is labeled as energy level for n equal or the L shell. Similarly, other lines are shown for the M and N shells. As we move from bottom to the top, the distance between the lines decreases. The transitions are shown as arrows from one line down to a lower line and are labeled. Transitions from n=2, 3, 4, and 5 to the n=1 level form the K series and are, in order, the K sub alpha, K sub beta, K sub gamma, and K sub delta lines. Transitions from n= 3, 4, and 5 to the n=2 level form the L series and are, in order, the L sub alpha, L sub beta, and L sub gamma lines. Transitions from n= 4 and 5 to the n=3 level form the M series and are, in order, the M sub alpha and L sub beta lines. The transition fro n=5 to the n=4 level is also shown and labeled as N sub alpha.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"43797\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/87ecbe358dce83fe6ae8ba89287c4bb7dc10ed6d\" width=\"385\" height=\"514\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.22 X-ray transitions in an atom.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901999632\">The distribution of X-ray wavelengths produced by striking metal with a beam of electrons is given in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.23. X-ray transitions in the target metal appear as peaks on top of the braking radiation curve. Photon frequencies corresponding to the spikes in the X-ray distribution are called characteristic frequencies, because they can be used to identify the target metal. The sharp cutoff wavelength (just below the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-969-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b3<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>peak) corresponds to an electron that loses all of its energy to a single photon. Radiation of shorter wavelengths is forbidden by the conservation of energy.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Braking\">\n<figure style=\"width: 689px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"A graph of X-ray intensity versus wavelength in nanometers is shown. The wavelength scale is logarithmic and its range is 0.01 nanometers to just past 1.0 nanometers. The curve starts from a point a little more than half way between 0.01 and 0.1 n m and increases. Before the frequency attains its maximum value at approximately 0.1 n m, three sharp peaks, labeled K sub alpha, K sub gamma, and K sub alpha are formed, after which the X-ray intensity decreases gradually. Two sharp peaks are seen about half way between 0.1 and 1.0, labeled L sub beta and L sub alpha. Another peak, at a wavelength longer than 1.0 n m, is labeled M sub alpha.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"38189\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/8b0784a63c5eef7a5e222edba7a86232b381f0c7\" width=\"689\" height=\"346\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.23 X-ray spectrum from a silver target. The peaks correspond to characteristic frequencies of X-rays emitted by silver when struck by an electron beam.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170901912852\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<header>\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">.7<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170903081131\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>X-Rays from Aluminum\u00a0<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Estimate the characteristic energy and frequency of the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-970-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray for aluminum (<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-971-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13<\/span><\/span><\/span>).<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>A<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-972-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray is produced by the transition of an electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-973-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=2<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>(<span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-974-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>n=1<\/span><\/span><\/span>) shell. An electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell \u201csees\u201d a charge<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-975-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13\u22121=12,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>because one electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell shields the nuclear charge. (Recall, two electrons are not in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell because the other electron state is vacant.) The frequency of the emitted photon can be estimated from the energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells.<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Solution<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells in a hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV. Assuming that other electrons in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L <\/em>shell or in higher-energy shells do not shield the nuclear charge, the energy difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells in an atom with<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-976-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=13<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>is approximately<\/p>\n<div data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903806651\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-977-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K\u2248(Z\u22121)2(10.2 eV)=(13\u22121)2(10.2eV)=1.47\u00d7103eV.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">(8.39)<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901741512\">Based on the relationship<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-978-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f=(\u0394EL\u2192K)\/h<\/span><\/span><\/span>, the frequency of the X-ray is<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902768172\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-979-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f=1.47\u00d7103eV4.14\u00d710\u221215eV\u00b7s=3.55\u00d71017Hz.<br \/>\n<\/span><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><br \/>\n<strong>Significance<\/p>\n<p><\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">The wavelength of the typical X-ray is 0.1\u201310 nm. In this case, the wavelength is:<\/span><span><br \/>\n<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901479644\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-980-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u03bb=cf=3.0\u00d7108m\/s3.55\u00d71017Hz=8.5\u00d710\u221210=0.85nm.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Hence, the transition<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-981-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u2192<\/span><\/span><em style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">in aluminum produces X-ray radiation.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">X-ray production provides an important test of quantum mechanics. According to the Bohr model, the energy of a<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-982-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">X-ray depends on the nuclear charge or atomic number,<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">. If<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is large, Coulomb forces in the atom are large, energy differences (<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-983-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">\u0394E<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">) are large, and, therefore, the energy of radiated photons is large. To illustrate, consider a single electron in a multi-electron atom. Neglecting interactions between the electrons, the allowed energy levels are<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903052420\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-984-Frame\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-984-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>En=\u2212Z2(13.6eV)n2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4..40]<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">where<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">n<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">= 1, 2, \u2026and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">is the atomic number of the nucleus. However, an electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">(<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-985-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">n=2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">) shell \u201csees\u201d a charge<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-986-Frame\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">Z\u22121<\/span><\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">, because one electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell shields the nuclear charge. (Recall that there is only one electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shell because the other electron was \u201cknocked out.\u201d) Therefore, the approximate energies of the electron in the<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">and<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><em style=\"font-size: 14pt\" data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">shells are<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902637031\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-987-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EL\u2248\u2212(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)22EK\u2248\u2212(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)12.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901575178\">The energy carried away by a photon in a transition from the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell is therefore<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170903037647\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-988-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K=(Z\u22121)2(13.6eV)(112\u2212122)=(Z\u22121)2(10.2eV),<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901758722\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is the atomic number. In general, the X-ray photon energy for a transition from an outer shell to the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell is<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902744334\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-989-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>\u0394EL\u2192K=hf=constant\u00d7(Z\u22121)2,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901541393\">or<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-990-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>(Z\u22121)=constant f,<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"os-equation-number\"><span class=\"os-number\">[4.41]<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901750253\">where<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">f<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is the frequency of a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-991-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray. This equation is<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term363\">Moseley\u2019s law<\/span>. For large values of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em>, we have approximately<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902794648\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-992-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z\u2248constant f.<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901619824\">This prediction can be checked by measuring<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">f<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>for a variety of metal targets. This model is supported if a plot of<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>versus<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-993-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>f<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>data (called a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span data-type=\"term\" id=\"term364\">Moseley plot<\/span>) is linear. Comparison of model predictions and experimental results, for both the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>series, is shown in<span>\u00a0<\/span>Figure 4.24. The data support the model that X-rays are produced when an outer shell electron drops in energy to fill a vacancy in an inner shell.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING<span>\u00a0<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">4.3<\/span><\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<header><span style=\"font-size: 1rem\">X-rays are produced by bombarding a metal target with high-energy electrons. If the target is replaced by another with two times the atomic number, what happens to the frequency of X-rays?<\/span><\/header>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 502px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"The Moseley plot of characteristic X rays shows a plot of the atomic number as a function of the square root of the frequencies in Hertz divided by 10 to the 16. The vertical scale goes from 0 to 80 and labels the elements whose atomic number are a multiple of 5: P, C a, M n, Z n, B r, Z r, R h, S n, C s, N d, T b, Y b, and R e. The horizontal scale goes from 0 to 24. The data falls along several straight lines, corresponding to the series. The L series, in blue, lies above the K series, in red and all the L lines are steeper than the K lines. The L sub alpha series has the steepest slope of the L series. Two K series curves are shown, with the K sub alpha slope slightly steeper than the K sub beta slope.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"24089\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/bed94aa9243461f87d7c0b88ac3a9a346e67b559\" width=\"502\" height=\"750\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.24 A Moseley plot. These data were adapted from Moseley\u2019s original data (H. G. J. Moseley, Philos. Mag. (6) 77:703, 1914).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"example\" id=\"fs-id1170902682890\" class=\"ui-has-child-title\">\n<header><\/header>\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<header>\n<h3 class=\"os-title\"><span class=\"os-title-label\">EXAMPLE<span>\u00a04<\/span><\/span><span class=\"os-number\">.8<\/span><span class=\"os-divider\"><\/span><\/h3>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901633873\"><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Characteristic X-Ray Energy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Calculate the approximate energy of a<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-994-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray from a tungsten anode in an X-ray tube.<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Two electrons occupy a filled<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell. A vacancy in this shell would leave one electron, so the effective charge for an electron in the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shell would be<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>\u2212 1 rather than<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em>. For tungsten,<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-995-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>Z=74,<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>so the effective charge is 73. This number can be used to calculate the energy-level difference between the<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">L<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>and<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">K<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>shells, and, therefore, the energy carried away by a photon in the transition<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-996-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>L\u2192K.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\"><strong>Solution<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>The effective<span>\u00a0<\/span><em data-effect=\"italics\">Z<\/em><span>\u00a0<\/span>is 73, so the<span>\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-997-Frame\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>K\u03b1<\/span><\/span><\/span><span>\u00a0<\/span>X-ray energy is given by<\/p>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901752832\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-998-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EK\u03b1=\u0394E=Ei\u2212Ef=E2\u2212E1,<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">where<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170901586533\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-999-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E1=\u2212Z212E0=\u22127321(13.6eV)=\u221272.5keV<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">and<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170902885008\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1000-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>E2=\u2212Z222E0=\u22127324(13.6eV)=\u221218.1keV.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">Thus,<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"unnumbered\" data-label=\"\" data-type=\"equation\" id=\"fs-id1170899265589\">\n<div class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1001-Frame\">\n<p><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\"><span>EK\u03b1=\u221218.1keV\u2212(\u221272.5keV)=54.4keV.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"title\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><strong>Significance<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">This large photon energy is typical of X-rays. X-ray energies become progressively larger for heavier elements because their energy increases approximately as<\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"MathJax_MathML\" id=\"MathJax-Element-1002-Frame\" style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\"><span class=\"MathJax_MathContainer\">Z2<\/span><\/span><span style=\"text-indent: 1em;font-size: 1rem\">. An acceleration voltage of more than 50,000 volts is needed to \u201cknock out\u201d an inner electron from a tungsten atom.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: Roboto, Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;font-size: 1em;font-style: italic\">X-ray Technology<\/span><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-id1170903019983\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902759155\">X-rays have many applications, such as in medical diagnostics (Figure 4.25), inspection of luggage at airports (Figure 4.26), and even detection of cracks in crucial aircraft components. The most common X-ray images are due to shadows. Because X-ray photons have high energy, they penetrate materials that are opaque to visible light. The more energy an X-ray photon has, the more material it penetrates. The depth of penetration is related to the density of the material, as well as to the energy of the photon. The denser the material, the fewer X-ray photons get through and the darker the shadow. X-rays are effective at identifying bone breaks and tumors; however, overexposure to X-rays can damage cells in biological organisms.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_TeethChest\">\n<figure style=\"width: 898px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Figure (a) shows an X-ray image of front view of the jaw, especially the teeth. Figure (b) shows a drawing of an dental x ray machine.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"45759\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/9b32648a9985df7c293bd3ef0d6f99e2faf13073\" width=\"898\" height=\"338\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.25 (a) An X-ray image of a person\u2019s teeth. (b) A typical X-ray machine in a dentist\u2019s office produces relatively low-energy radiation to minimize patient exposure. (credit a: modification of work by \u201cDmitry G\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_Luggage\">\n<figure style=\"width: 488px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"A colored X-ray image of a piece of luggage.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"44468\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/e1b11133f6c7bd7c172b595e7a71fbd7d88675f2\" width=\"488\" height=\"354\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.26 An X-ray image of a piece of luggage. The denser the material, the darker the shadow. Object colors relate to material composition\u2014metallic objects show up as blue in this image. (credit: \u201cIDuke\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170902923280\">A standard X-ray image provides a two-dimensional view of the object. However, in medical applications, this view does not often provide enough information to draw firm conclusions. For example, in a two-dimensional X-ray image of the body, bones can easily hide soft tissues or organs. The CAT (computed axial tomography) scanner addresses this problem by collecting numerous X-ray images in \u201cslices\u201d throughout the body. Complex computer-image processing of the relative absorption of the X-rays, in different directions, can produce a highly detailed three-dimensional X-ray image of the body.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-id1170901501480\">X-rays can also be used to probe the structures of atoms and molecules. Consider X-rays incident on the surface of a crystalline solid. Some X-ray photons reflect at the surface, and others reflect off the \u201cplane\u201d of atoms just below the surface. Interference between these photons, for different angles of incidence, produces a beautiful image on a screen (Figure 4.27). The interaction of X-rays with a solid is called X-ray diffraction. The most famous example using X-ray diffraction is the discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA.<\/p>\n<div class=\"os-figure\">\n<figure id=\"CNX_UPhysics_41_05_XrayDiff\">\n<figure style=\"width: 731px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"An x ray diffraction image of a protein. The image shows an array of small black dots, arranged in slightly curved rows, on a white background. A white arm extends from the top left to the center of the image, where there is a small white disk. This white disk is the shadow of the beam block, which blocks the part of the incident x ray beam that was not diffracted by the crystal.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" id=\"543\" src=\"https:\/\/cnx.org\/resources\/95434c3c1f22b71e0791c5e020043768d450c816\" width=\"731\" height=\"731\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 4.27 X-ray diffraction from the crystal of a protein (hen egg lysozyme) produced this interference pattern. Analysis of the pattern yields information about the structure of the protein. (credit: \u201cDel45\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div class=\"os-caption-container\"><em><span class=\"os-title-label\"><\/span><span class=\"os-caption\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/em><\/div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox\"><em>Download for free at http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/af275420-6050-4707-995c-57b9cc13c358@11.1<\/em><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":615,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"4. 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