It is now common to think of effective leadership in terms of what leaders do. CEOs and management consultants agree that effective leaders display trust in their employees, develop a vision, keep their cool, encourage risk, bring expertise into the work setting, invite dissent, and focus everyone\u2019s attention on that which is important.<\/p>\r\n\r\n
During the late 1940s, two major research programs\u2014The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan leadership studies\u2014were launched to explore leadership from a behavioral perspective.<\/p>\r\n\r\n
The Ohio State University Studies<\/h3>\r\n
A group of Ohio State University researchers, under the direction of Ralph Stogdill, began an extensive and systematic series of studies to identify leader behaviors associated with effective group performance. Their results identified two major sets of leader behaviors: consideration and initiating structure.<\/p>\r\n
Consideration<\/span> is the \u201crelationship-oriented\u201d behavior of a leader. It is instrumental in creating and maintaining good relationships (that is, addressing the group\u2019s maintenance needs) with organizational members. Consideration behaviors include being supportive and friendly, representing people\u2019s interests, communicating openly with group members, recognizing them, respecting their ideas, and sharing concern for their feelings.<\/p>\r\n Initiating structure<\/span> involves \u201ctask-oriented\u201d leader behaviors. It is instrumental in the efficient use of resources to attain organizational goals, thereby addressing the group\u2019s task needs. Initiating structure behaviors include scheduling work, deciding what is to be done (and how and when to do it), providing direction to organizational members, planning, coordinating, problem-solving, maintaining standards of performance, and encouraging the use of uniform procedures.<\/p>\r\n After consideration and initiating structure behaviors were first identified, many leaders believed that they had to behave one way or the other. If they initiated structure, they could not be considerate, and vice versa. It did not take long, however, to recognize that leaders can simultaneously display any combination of both behaviors.<\/p>\r\n The Ohio State studies are important because they identified two critical categories of behavior that distinguish one leader from another. Both consideration and initiating structure behavior can significantly impact work attitudes and behaviors. Unfortunately, the effects of consideration and initiating structure are not consistent from situation to situation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n Initially, these mixed findings were disappointing to researchers and managers alike. It had been hoped that a profile of the most effective leader behaviors could be identified so that leaders could be trained in the best ways to behave. Research made clear, however, that there is no one best style of leader behavior for all situations.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n At about the same time that the Ohio State studies were underway, researchers at the University of Michigan also began to investigate leader behaviors. As at Ohio State, the Michigan researchers attempted to identify behavioral elements that differentiated effective from ineffective leaders.<\/p>\r\n\r\n The two types of leader behavior that stand out in these studies are job centered and organizational member centered. Job-centered behaviors<\/em> are devoted to supervisory functions, such as planning, scheduling, coordinating work activities, and providing the resources needed for task performance. Employee-member-centered<\/em> behaviors include consideration and support for organizational members. These dimensions of behavior, of course, correspond closely to the dimensions of initiating structure and consideration identified at Ohio State. The similarity of the findings from two independent groups of researchers added to their credibility. As the Ohio State researchers had done, the Michigan researchers also found that any combination of the two behaviors was possible.<\/p>\r\n The studies at Michigan are significant because they reinforce the importance of leader behavior. They also provide the basis for later theories that identify specific, effective matches of work situations and leader behaviors. Subsequent research at Michigan and elsewhere has found additional behaviors associated with effective leadership: support, work facilitation, goal emphasis, and interaction facilitation.<\/p>\r\n\r\n These four behaviors are important to the successful functioning of the group in that support and interaction facilitation contribute to the group\u2019s maintenance needs, and goal emphasis and work facilitation contribute to the group\u2019s task needs. The Michigan researchers also found that these four behaviors do not need to be brought to the group by the leader. In essence, the leader\u2019s real job is to set the tone and create the climate that ensure these critical behaviors are present.<\/p>\r\n\r\nThe University of Michigan Studies<\/h3>\r\n
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<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nBlake and Mouton contend that the sound (contribute and commit) leader (a high concern for results and people, or 9,9) style is universally the most effective.\r\n