{"id":1070,"date":"2020-09-30T21:30:51","date_gmt":"2020-10-01T01:30:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1070"},"modified":"2021-01-16T19:13:59","modified_gmt":"2021-01-17T00:13:59","slug":"the-carolingians","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/chapter\/the-carolingians\/","title":{"raw":"Carolingian Art","rendered":"Carolingian Art"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n\r\nCarolingian artwork consists of frescoes and mosaics that reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify the form, content, and context of key Carolingian works<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define critical terms relating to Carolingian art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Carolingian mosaics and paintings<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare Carolingian architecture as it relates to the pre-Romanesque, Roman classicist, Late Antique, early Christian, and Byzantine styles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss major Carolingian manuscripts, the workshops and schools they were created in, and the traditions they drew from<\/li>\r\n \t<li>List the prominent examples of metalwork during the Carolingian era<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\r\nCarolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for the court circle and a group of important monasteries under imperial patronage.\r\n\r\nSurviving examples of painting from this era consist mainly of frescoes and mosaics produced in present-day France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, northern Italy, and the Low Countries. These sites have allowed art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian paintings. Paintings show an attempt to conform to Charlemagne\u2019s desire to revive the Roman Empire under a Christian banner. The figures in the frescoes, although relatively flat and posed in a stylized manner, display a degree of modelling and an acknowledgement of the body beneath the clothing. Their facial expressions and body language imply a sense of interaction, although few stand in profile and none turn their backs to the viewer. Surviving frescoes show a greater degree of modelling, a variety of poses, and a relatively naturalistic rendering of draperies and acknowledgement of the bodies beneath. Outside the elite circle that produced these works, however, the quality of visual art was much lower.\r\n<h3>Frescoes<\/h3>\r\nVarious forms of Carolingian painting include [pb_glossary id=\"1303\"]frescoes[\/pb_glossary], which reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne. A villa that featured the oratory of the Palatine Chapel belonged to Bishop Theodulf of Orl\u00e9ans, a key associate of Charlemagne. It was destroyed later in the century but contained multiple Carolingian frescos of the Seven Liberal Arts, the Four Seasons, and the <em>Mappa Mundi<\/em>\u00a0(Map of the World). Art historians have found numerous other Carolingian frescoes in churches and palaces that have since been nearly completely lost.\r\n\r\nThe Abbey of Saint John at M\u00fcstair, Switzerland is the site of exceptionally well-preserved Carolingian art. The original church has several significant early medieval frescoes from around 800 CE. The paintings are organized in five rows that stretch from the southern wall across the west wall to the northern wall. The top row features scenes from the life of King David of the Old Testament. The next three rows show scenes from the youth, life, and Passion of Christ. The bottom row contains scenes from the crucifixion of Saint Andreas. On the western wall, the rows are tied together with an image of the Last Judgment. The palette consists of a limited range of colours including ochre, red, and brown.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34675\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"317\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ln5yfusttf6mg5sx1uxa.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"317\" height=\"501\" \/> <em><strong>Fragments of Carolingian-era frescoes (early ninth century), St. John at M\u00fcstair:<\/strong> Art historian Dr. Bernd Sch\u00e4licke examines the Carolingian frescoes on the north wall of the Benedictine Monastery Church of St. John at M\u00fcstair.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe frescoes at Saint Benedikt at Mals, Italy are contemporary with those at neighbouring Saint John at M\u00fcstair. They belong to a limited set of surviving frescoes of the Carolingian period. The frescoes are mostly distributed in three niches on the altar wall, showing Jesus Christ flanked by pope Gregory the Great and Saint Stephen. On the walls separating the niches are donor portraits below a troop of 12 angels, and scenes showing Gregory writing his <em>Dialogi<\/em>\u00a0and disputing with Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon) alongside scenes showing Paul of Tarsus\u00a0and a fragment of a scene from the life of Saint Benedict.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34676\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"403\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/gadma8rf2jdbizojvvay.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"403\" height=\"261\" \/> <em><strong>Saint Gregory Disputing with Paulus Diaconus (c. 825):<\/strong> Church of St. Benedict, Mals, Italy.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Mosaics<\/h3>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"1263\"]Mosaics[\/pb_glossary] were created by assembling small pieces of coloured glass, stone, pigments, and other materials. The mosaics were created in Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel at Aachen, whose interior remains adorned with arch-to-dome mosaics. Like the Byzantine mosaics that influenced their design, those that adorn Charlemagne\u2019s chapel feature floral motifs and classicized figures in various poses against largely gold backgrounds.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34673\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"356\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/oxhaysnsdc0mb1fpvv1y.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"356\" height=\"486\" \/> <em><strong>Palatine Chapel at Aachen, interior view:<\/strong> The surviving mosaics begin above eye level at the piers or arches and span upward into the dome.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe most famous mosaic in Charlemagne\u2019s chapel showed an enthroned Christ worshiped by the Evangelist\u2019s symbols and the 24 elders of the Apocalypse. This mosaic no longer survives, but a restored one remains in the apse of the oratory at Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s (806), discovered in 1820 under a coat of plaster and depicting the Ark of the Covenant adored by angels.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9605\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"584\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163530\/germigny-des-pres-2007-01.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"584\" height=\"418\" \/> <em><strong>Ark of the Covenant, Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s (c. 806):<\/strong> Restoration of the original that once adorned the Palatine Chapel. The subject seems drawn from illuminated Jewish bibles and relates to the\u00a0Libri Carolini, possibly written by Theodulf, where the Ark is cited as divine approval of sacred images.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Carolingian Architecture<\/h2>\r\nCarolingian architecture is characterized by its attempts to emulate late Roman classicism, early Christian, and Byzantine styles. During the eighth and ninth centuries, the Carolingian dynasty (named for Charlemagne) dominated western Europe politically, culturally, and economically.\r\n\r\nCarolingian architecture is characterized by its conscious attempts to emulate Roman classicism and Late Antique architecture. The Carolingians thus borrowed heavily from early Christian and Byzantine architectural styles, although they added their own innovations and aesthetic style. The result was a fusion of divergent cultural aesthetic qualities.\r\n\r\nThe gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture, built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway, with the arcaded fa\u00e7ade interspersed with engaged Corinthian columns and pilasters above. In addition to the engaged columns and arcades, the apse-like structures on either side of the gatehouse recall the ancient Roman basilicas, which were the sites of important government events.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9517\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"507\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163533\/torhalle-kloster-lorsch-1.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"507\" height=\"381\" \/> <em><strong>Lorsch Abbey:<\/strong>\u00a0(800 CE) demonstrates the Roman classical inspiration the Carolingians took for their architecture, with a triple arch hallway dominating the gateway and interspersed with engaged classical columns.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nBy contrast, the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), with its sixteen-sided ambulatory and overhead gallery, was inspired by the Byzantine-style octagonal church of San Vitale in Ravenna. The chapel makes use of ancient spolia, conceivably from Ravenna, as well as newly carved materials. The bronze decoration is of extraordinarily high quality, especially the doors with lion heads and the interior railings with Corinthian order columns and acanthus scrolls. Like San Vitale, the Palatine Chapel is a centrally-planned church whose dome serves as its focal point. However, at Aachen, the [pb_glossary id=\"1219\"]barrel[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1273\"]groin vaults[\/pb_glossary] and octagonal cloister vault in the dome reflect late Roman practices rather than the Byzantine techniques employed at San Vitale. Its round arches and massive supporting piers draw from Western Roman influence. A multicoloured marble veneer creates a sumptuous interior. A monumental western entrance complex called the westwork is also drawn from Byzantine architecture.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9518\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"501\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163536\/aachener-dom-oktagon.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"501\" height=\"376\" \/> <em><strong>Palatine Chapel in Aachen, interior view:<\/strong> The Palatine Chapel in Aachen (792-805) demonstrates the Byzantine influence on Carolingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal style.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nCarolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks, arguably the precedent for the western fa\u00e7ades of later medieval cathedrals. A westwork (German: <em>westwerk<\/em>) is a monumental west-facing entrance section of a medieval church. This exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave. The westwork first originated in the ancient churches of Syria.\r\n\r\nThe westwork of Corvey Abbey (873-885), Germany, is the oldest surviving example. Like the gatehouse from Lorsch Abbey, the westwork of Corvey consists of a symmetrical arcade of three round arches at the base. This arcaded pattern repeats in the windows on the second and third stories. The heavy masonry throughout the fa\u00e7ade recalls the massive appearance of the interior of the Palatine Chapel. On the upper stories of the center and towers of the westwork, a range of modified classical columns divide and accent the windows, also round arches.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34698\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"365\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/xsyrpuogtq223f6disxj.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"365\" height=\"487\" \/> <em><strong>Corvey Abbey:<\/strong> The westwork is the only surviving architectural component of the original Carolingian monastery.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Carolingian Illustrated Books in the Early European Middle Ages<\/h2>\r\nThe most common surviving works of the Carolingian era are [pb_glossary id=\"1287\"]illuminated manuscripts[\/pb_glossary], which further developed the Insular book style. This includes a number of luxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel books. They are decorated with a relatively small number of full-page miniatures, often including evangelist portraits and lavish canon tables drawn from Insular art in Britain and Ireland. Carolingian narrative images and cycles are rare but do exist. They tend to be mostly of the Old Testament, while New Testament scenes are typically found on the ivory reliefs on the covers.\r\n<h3>Early Carolingian Manuscripts<\/h3>\r\nCarolingian illustrators adopted the oversized, heavily decorated initials of Insular art and developed the historiated decorated initial to produce small narrative scenes. These were seen for the first time toward the end of the period, most notably in the\u00a0<em>Drogo Sacramentary<\/em> (850-855). The historiated initial, a harmonious union of classical lettering with narrative scenes, had an influence that extended into the Romanesque period.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9599\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"328\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163538\/acramentaryfol71vascension.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"328\" height=\"487\" \/> <em><strong>Drogo Sacramentary (c. 850):<\/strong> depicts a historiated initial \u201cC\u201d which contains the Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nCarolingian luxury manuscripts were given treasure binding, rich covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivory panels. As in Insular art, these were prestige objects kept in the church or treasury. By contrast, working manuscripts featured a few decorated initial and pen drawings and were kept in libraries. One exception is the <em>Utrecht Psalter,\u00a0<\/em>a heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms done in pen and wash and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript. This was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts for its innovative and naturalistic figure line drawings that became the most influential innovation of Carolinian art.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9601\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"535\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163540\/utrecht-15v-2.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"535\" height=\"272\" \/> <em><strong>Ultrecht Psalter:<\/strong> From the Utrecht Psalter, ninth century. Naturalistic and energetic figurine line drawings were entirely new and became the most influential innovation of Carolinian art in later periods.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Carolingian Manuscript Workshops<\/h3>\r\nCarolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops practiced its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of that particular location and time. The earliest workshop was the Court School of Charlemagne, then the Rheimsian workshop (which became the most influential of the Carolingian period), the Touronian style, the Drogo style, and the Court School of Charles II (the Bald).\r\n<h3>The Court School of Charlemagne<\/h3>\r\nThe Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts, including the\u00a0<em>Godescalc Evangelistary<\/em>\u00a0(781\u2013783), the\u00a0<em>Lorsch Gospels<\/em>\u00a0(778\u2013820, ), the\u00a0<em>Ada Gospels<\/em>, the\u00a0<em>Soissons Gospels<\/em>, the\u00a0<em>Harley Golden Gospels<\/em>\u00a0(800-820), and the\u00a0<em>Vienna Coronation Gospels<\/em>. The Court School manuscripts were ornate and elaborate, reminiscent of sixth-century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. The Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet maintained Migration-Period artistic (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9600\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"564\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163543\/codexaureus-02-1.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"564\" height=\"774\" \/> <em><strong>Lorsch Gospels:<\/strong> Ivory book cover with carvings. The Lorsch Gospels reflect its origin in the Court School of Charlemagne with its Late Antiquity Imperial scenes adapted to a Christian theme.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Rheims School<\/h3>\r\nIn the early ninth century, Archbishop Ebbo of Rheims assembled clerical artists and transformed Carolingian art. The expressive animations of the Rheims School would have an influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, far into the Romanesque period. One example was the Gospel <em>Book of Ebbo<\/em> (816\u2013835), painted with swift, fresh, vibrant brushstrokes that evoked inspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms. This emotionalism was new to Carolingian art. Figures in the <em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0are represented in nervous, agitated poses. The illustration uses an energetic, streaky style with swift brush strokes. The style directly influenced manuscript illumination for decades, as seen in the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>\u00a0<em>Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>. The evangelist portrait\u00a0of Matthew in the\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0is similar to the illustration of the psalmist in the first psalm of the\u00a0<em>Utrecht Psalter<\/em>.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34728\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"343\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/lrjjtrmsiijcl3k44bvv.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"343\" height=\"474\" \/> <em><strong>Saint Matthew, from the Ebbo Gospels (816-35): <\/strong>Portrait of Matthew, depicting him sitting and writing in the foreground. The wavy lines that form the details on Matthew\u2019s clothing and the diagonal lines adding detail to the background and foreground are examples of the energetic subject matter in the\u00a0Ebbo Gospels.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOther books associated with the Rheims school include the\u00a0<em>Utrecht Psalter<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0<em>Bern Physiologus\u00a0<\/em>(825-850), the earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. Many of its miniatures are set unframed into the text block, which was a characteristic of Late-Antique manuscripts. For this reason, it is believed to be a copy of a fifth-century manuscript. This is one of the oldest extant illustrated copies of the\u00a0<em>Physiologus<\/em>.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34729\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"295\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/owbcievgsx9frsd74jtq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"295\" height=\"393\" \/> <em><strong>Bern Physiologus, Folio 12v (825-850 CE):<\/strong> Image of the text and drawings from the\u00a0Bern Physiologus, showing the miniatures drawn unframed into the text block. This is typical of late Antique manuscripts, leading scholars to believe that it is a copy of a fifth-century original.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>St. Martin of Tours<\/h3>\r\nAnother style developed at the monastery of St. Martin of Tours in which large Bibles were illustrated based on late Antique Bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created. One of the best examples was the\u00a0<em>Vivian Bible<\/em>\u00a0(c. 846), commissioned by Count Vivien, the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours, and presented to Charles the Bald. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire.\r\n<h3>Charles the Bald Court School<\/h3>\r\nCharles the Bald established a Court School that fused Touronian, Rhemsian, and Charlemagne Court School styles. Several manuscripts are attributed to this institution, and the\u00a0<em>Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>\u00a0(870) was the last and most spectacular. The school\u2019s location at the time is unknown as its previous base at St Martin\u2019s Abbey in Tours was destroyed in 853, but it had probably moved to the Basilica of St. Denis outside Paris by the time of the production of the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>. Seven full-page miniatures show the four evangelists, Charles the Bald enthroned, the Adoration of the Lamb, and a Christ in Majesty.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34730\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"414\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/uys9utw6s3cv9xldrasa.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"414\" height=\"559\" \/> <em><strong>Charles the Bald, from the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (c. 870):<\/strong> Depiction of Charles the Bald enthroned, surrounded by angels and saints. The Hand of God reaches down from beneath the red canopy, hovering over the emperor\u2019s head.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Carolingian Metalwork in the Early European Middle Ages<\/h2>\r\nCarolingian metalworkers primarily worked with gold, ivory, gems, and other precious materials.\r\n\r\nCarolingian-era metalworkers primarily worked with gold, gems, ivory, and other precious materials. For instance, luxury Carolingian manuscripts were given treasure bindings and elaborately ornate covers in precious metals set with jewels around central carved ivory panels. Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images, such as the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels, were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art.\r\n<h3>Charles the Bald\u2019s Palace School Workshop<\/h3>\r\nImportant Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald\u2019s Palace School workshop, and include the cover of the Lindau Gospels, the cover of the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>\u00a0<em>Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>, and the\u00a0<em>Arnulf Ciborium<\/em>. All three of these works feature fine relief figures in [pb_glossary id=\"1142\"]repouss\u00e9[\/pb_glossary] gold. Another work associated with the Palace School is the frame of an antique serpentine dish, now located in the Louvre.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/31222\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"382\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163445\/codex-aureus-sankt-emmeram.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"382\" height=\"495\" \/> <em><strong>Cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870 CE):<\/strong> Gold and gem encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, 870. Produced by the Carolingian Palace School.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nUnder Charlemagne, there was a revival of large-scale bronze casting in imitation of Roman designs, although metalwork in gold continued to develop. For example, the Aachen chapel\u2019s figure of Christ in gold (now lost) was the first known work of this type and became a crucial inspiring feature of northern European medieval art. Another one of the finest examples of Carolingian metalwork is the <em>Golden Altar<\/em>\u00a0(824\u2013859), also known as the\u00a0<em>Paliotto<\/em>, in the Basilica of Sant\u2019Ambrogio in Milan (since damaged by World War II bombings). The altar\u2019s four sides are decorated with images in gold and silver repouss\u00e9 framed by borders of filigree, precious stones, and enamel.\r\n<h3>An Imperial Portrait<\/h3>\r\nCharlemagne\u2019s personal appearance is known from a good description by a personal associate Einhard, whose biography of the emperor describes him as tall and well-built with a round head and wide eyes. This written portrait is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, his exhumed body, and sculptures believed to depict his likeness. One possibility is a bronze equestrian statuette once housed in Aachen Cathedral. Typical of sculpture in the round produced during the Carolingian period, the statuette is small, approximately eight inches high. The rider is depicted with a mustache, an open crown on his head, and a riding cloak fastened with a fibula. Like the architecture and painting of the time, this sculpture reflects Charlemagne\u2019s desire to recreate the Roman Empire, as it bears similarities with a large-scale bronze equestrian portrait of Marcus Aurelius from the second century. Similar to the ancient Roman emperor, the mounted Carolingian ruler wears a calm expression as he rides without holding the reins. Rather, he holds a sword (now lost) in his right hand and an imperial orb in his left. Unlike its ancient predecessor, the horse does not pounce on a missing enemy but calmly prances, reflecting the stateliness of the rider.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34969\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"311\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/elezr77hqk2gh1vklevp.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"311\" height=\"460\" \/> <em><strong>Equestrian Statuette of a Carolingian Ruler, Possibly Charlemagne (c. 870):<\/strong> Statuette of Charlemagne (?) mounted on a horse holding a sword on a marble base. 8 inches high. \u00a0Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Wolf\u2019s Door<\/h3>\r\nBronze is also featured in many decorative elements of Carolingian westwork at Aachen Cathedral. Known as the Wolf\u2019s Door, the main entrance consists of heavy bronze leaves. Each leaf is divided into eight rectangles\u2014a number that had religious symbolism in Christianity, as a symbol of Sunday, the day of the Resurrection. These boxes were framed by decorative strips, which are made of egg-shaped decorations. The egg was considered a symbol of life and fertility from antiquity. In Christian belief, it was imbued with the even wider symbolism of Eternal Life. The door-rings in the shape of lions\u2019 heads are wreathed by 24 stylized acanthus scrolls\u2014again to be understood at the deepest level through numerology. The Wolf\u2019s Door\u2019s imitation of the shape of the ancient Roman temple door signifies Charlemagne\u2019s claim to have established a New Rome in Aachen with the Palatine Chapel as the distinctive monumental building.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Some fragmentary frescoes have survived, allowing art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian painting. Examples of surviving fragments include those at the Abbey of Saint John at M\u00fcstair and Saint Benedikt at Mals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mosaics, created by assembling small pieces of coloured glass, stone, pigments, and other materials, were created in Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel. Examples of well-preserved surviving frescoes can be found at Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel at Aachen and Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Carolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome and commonly incorporated westworks .<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As the earliest producer of Carolingian manuscripts, the Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism yet maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The\u00a0<em>Drogo Sacramentary<\/em> introduced the historiated initial to manuscript illumination. It became standard in manuscripts for the remainder of the Middle Ages.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The\u00a0<em>Utrecht\u00a0<\/em><em>Psalter<\/em>\u00a0was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts because of its innovative and naturalistic figurine line drawings. These became the most influential innovation of Carolingian art.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0introduced expressive and energetic lines that were unprecedented in illumination and influenced the art form for decades.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald\u2019s \u201cPalace School\u201d workshop.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Carolingian-era metalwork produced large statues cast entirely in gold that would influence the development of monumental, elaborate sculptures and altars made from precious materials in northern European medieval art.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdapted from <strong>\"Boundless Art History\"<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-carolingians\/ <strong>License<\/strong>:<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>\u00a0<em><a style=\"color: #993300\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<p>Carolingian artwork consists of frescoes and mosaics that reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Identify the form, content, and context of key Carolingian works<\/li>\n<li>Define critical terms relating to Carolingian art<\/li>\n<li>Describe Carolingian mosaics and paintings<\/li>\n<li>Compare Carolingian architecture as it relates to the pre-Romanesque, Roman classicist, Late Antique, early Christian, and Byzantine styles<\/li>\n<li>Discuss major Carolingian manuscripts, the workshops and schools they were created in, and the traditions they drew from<\/li>\n<li>List the prominent examples of metalwork during the Carolingian era<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Background<\/h3>\n<p>Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The art was produced by and for the court circle and a group of important monasteries under imperial patronage.<\/p>\n<p>Surviving examples of painting from this era consist mainly of frescoes and mosaics produced in present-day France, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, northern Italy, and the Low Countries. These sites have allowed art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian paintings. Paintings show an attempt to conform to Charlemagne\u2019s desire to revive the Roman Empire under a Christian banner. The figures in the frescoes, although relatively flat and posed in a stylized manner, display a degree of modelling and an acknowledgement of the body beneath the clothing. Their facial expressions and body language imply a sense of interaction, although few stand in profile and none turn their backs to the viewer. Surviving frescoes show a greater degree of modelling, a variety of poses, and a relatively naturalistic rendering of draperies and acknowledgement of the bodies beneath. Outside the elite circle that produced these works, however, the quality of visual art was much lower.<\/p>\n<h3>Frescoes<\/h3>\n<p>Various forms of Carolingian painting include <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1303\">frescoes<\/a>, which reached a pinnacle of production under the reign of Charlemagne. A villa that featured the oratory of the Palatine Chapel belonged to Bishop Theodulf of Orl\u00e9ans, a key associate of Charlemagne. It was destroyed later in the century but contained multiple Carolingian frescos of the Seven Liberal Arts, the Four Seasons, and the <em>Mappa Mundi<\/em>\u00a0(Map of the World). Art historians have found numerous other Carolingian frescoes in churches and palaces that have since been nearly completely lost.<\/p>\n<p>The Abbey of Saint John at M\u00fcstair, Switzerland is the site of exceptionally well-preserved Carolingian art. The original church has several significant early medieval frescoes from around 800 CE. The paintings are organized in five rows that stretch from the southern wall across the west wall to the northern wall. The top row features scenes from the life of King David of the Old Testament. The next three rows show scenes from the youth, life, and Passion of Christ. The bottom row contains scenes from the crucifixion of Saint Andreas. On the western wall, the rows are tied together with an image of the Last Judgment. The palette consists of a limited range of colours including ochre, red, and brown.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34675\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 317px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ln5yfusttf6mg5sx1uxa.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"317\" height=\"501\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Fragments of Carolingian-era frescoes (early ninth century), St. John at M\u00fcstair:<\/strong> Art historian Dr. Bernd Sch\u00e4licke examines the Carolingian frescoes on the north wall of the Benedictine Monastery Church of St. John at M\u00fcstair.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The frescoes at Saint Benedikt at Mals, Italy are contemporary with those at neighbouring Saint John at M\u00fcstair. They belong to a limited set of surviving frescoes of the Carolingian period. The frescoes are mostly distributed in three niches on the altar wall, showing Jesus Christ flanked by pope Gregory the Great and Saint Stephen. On the walls separating the niches are donor portraits below a troop of 12 angels, and scenes showing Gregory writing his <em>Dialogi<\/em>\u00a0and disputing with Paulus Diaconus (Paul the Deacon) alongside scenes showing Paul of Tarsus\u00a0and a fragment of a scene from the life of Saint Benedict.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34676\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 403px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/gadma8rf2jdbizojvvay.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"403\" height=\"261\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Saint Gregory Disputing with Paulus Diaconus (c. 825):<\/strong> Church of St. Benedict, Mals, Italy.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Mosaics<\/h3>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1263\">Mosaics<\/a> were created by assembling small pieces of coloured glass, stone, pigments, and other materials. The mosaics were created in Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel at Aachen, whose interior remains adorned with arch-to-dome mosaics. Like the Byzantine mosaics that influenced their design, those that adorn Charlemagne\u2019s chapel feature floral motifs and classicized figures in various poses against largely gold backgrounds.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34673\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 356px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/oxhaysnsdc0mb1fpvv1y.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"356\" height=\"486\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Palatine Chapel at Aachen, interior view:<\/strong> The surviving mosaics begin above eye level at the piers or arches and span upward into the dome.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The most famous mosaic in Charlemagne\u2019s chapel showed an enthroned Christ worshiped by the Evangelist\u2019s symbols and the 24 elders of the Apocalypse. This mosaic no longer survives, but a restored one remains in the apse of the oratory at Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s (806), discovered in 1820 under a coat of plaster and depicting the Ark of the Covenant adored by angels.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9605\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 584px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163530\/germigny-des-pres-2007-01.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"584\" height=\"418\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Ark of the Covenant, Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s (c. 806):<\/strong> Restoration of the original that once adorned the Palatine Chapel. The subject seems drawn from illuminated Jewish bibles and relates to the\u00a0Libri Carolini, possibly written by Theodulf, where the Ark is cited as divine approval of sacred images.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Carolingian Architecture<\/h2>\n<p>Carolingian architecture is characterized by its attempts to emulate late Roman classicism, early Christian, and Byzantine styles. During the eighth and ninth centuries, the Carolingian dynasty (named for Charlemagne) dominated western Europe politically, culturally, and economically.<\/p>\n<p>Carolingian architecture is characterized by its conscious attempts to emulate Roman classicism and Late Antique architecture. The Carolingians thus borrowed heavily from early Christian and Byzantine architectural styles, although they added their own innovations and aesthetic style. The result was a fusion of divergent cultural aesthetic qualities.<\/p>\n<p>The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey, built around 800 CE in Germany, exemplifies classical inspiration for Carolingian architecture, built as a triple-arched hall dominating the gateway, with the arcaded fa\u00e7ade interspersed with engaged Corinthian columns and pilasters above. In addition to the engaged columns and arcades, the apse-like structures on either side of the gatehouse recall the ancient Roman basilicas, which were the sites of important government events.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9517\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 507px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163533\/torhalle-kloster-lorsch-1.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"507\" height=\"381\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Lorsch Abbey:<\/strong>\u00a0(800 CE) demonstrates the Roman classical inspiration the Carolingians took for their architecture, with a triple arch hallway dominating the gateway and interspersed with engaged classical columns.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>By contrast, the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), with its sixteen-sided ambulatory and overhead gallery, was inspired by the Byzantine-style octagonal church of San Vitale in Ravenna. The chapel makes use of ancient spolia, conceivably from Ravenna, as well as newly carved materials. The bronze decoration is of extraordinarily high quality, especially the doors with lion heads and the interior railings with Corinthian order columns and acanthus scrolls. Like San Vitale, the Palatine Chapel is a centrally-planned church whose dome serves as its focal point. However, at Aachen, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1219\">barrel<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1273\">groin vaults<\/a> and octagonal cloister vault in the dome reflect late Roman practices rather than the Byzantine techniques employed at San Vitale. Its round arches and massive supporting piers draw from Western Roman influence. A multicoloured marble veneer creates a sumptuous interior. A monumental western entrance complex called the westwork is also drawn from Byzantine architecture.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9518\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 501px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163536\/aachener-dom-oktagon.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"501\" height=\"376\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Palatine Chapel in Aachen, interior view:<\/strong> The Palatine Chapel in Aachen (792-805) demonstrates the Byzantine influence on Carolingian architecture, evidenced by its octagonal style.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Carolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome, and commonly incorporated westworks, arguably the precedent for the western fa\u00e7ades of later medieval cathedrals. A westwork (German: <em>westwerk<\/em>) is a monumental west-facing entrance section of a medieval church. This exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers, while the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave. The westwork first originated in the ancient churches of Syria.<\/p>\n<p>The westwork of Corvey Abbey (873-885), Germany, is the oldest surviving example. Like the gatehouse from Lorsch Abbey, the westwork of Corvey consists of a symmetrical arcade of three round arches at the base. This arcaded pattern repeats in the windows on the second and third stories. The heavy masonry throughout the fa\u00e7ade recalls the massive appearance of the interior of the Palatine Chapel. On the upper stories of the center and towers of the westwork, a range of modified classical columns divide and accent the windows, also round arches.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34698\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 365px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/xsyrpuogtq223f6disxj.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"365\" height=\"487\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Corvey Abbey:<\/strong> The westwork is the only surviving architectural component of the original Carolingian monastery.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Carolingian Illustrated Books in the Early European Middle Ages<\/h2>\n<p>The most common surviving works of the Carolingian era are <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1287\">illuminated manuscripts<\/a>, which further developed the Insular book style. This includes a number of luxury manuscripts, mostly Gospel books. They are decorated with a relatively small number of full-page miniatures, often including evangelist portraits and lavish canon tables drawn from Insular art in Britain and Ireland. Carolingian narrative images and cycles are rare but do exist. They tend to be mostly of the Old Testament, while New Testament scenes are typically found on the ivory reliefs on the covers.<\/p>\n<h3>Early Carolingian Manuscripts<\/h3>\n<p>Carolingian illustrators adopted the oversized, heavily decorated initials of Insular art and developed the historiated decorated initial to produce small narrative scenes. These were seen for the first time toward the end of the period, most notably in the\u00a0<em>Drogo Sacramentary<\/em> (850-855). The historiated initial, a harmonious union of classical lettering with narrative scenes, had an influence that extended into the Romanesque period.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9599\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 328px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163538\/acramentaryfol71vascension.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"328\" height=\"487\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Drogo Sacramentary (c. 850):<\/strong> depicts a historiated initial \u201cC\u201d which contains the Ascension of Christ. The text is in gold ink.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Carolingian luxury manuscripts were given treasure binding, rich covers with jewels set in gold and carved ivory panels. As in Insular art, these were prestige objects kept in the church or treasury. By contrast, working manuscripts featured a few decorated initial and pen drawings and were kept in libraries. One exception is the <em>Utrecht Psalter,\u00a0<\/em>a heavily illustrated library version of the Psalms done in pen and wash and almost certainly copied from a much earlier manuscript. This was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts for its innovative and naturalistic figure line drawings that became the most influential innovation of Carolinian art.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9601\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 535px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163540\/utrecht-15v-2.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"535\" height=\"272\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Ultrecht Psalter:<\/strong> From the Utrecht Psalter, ninth century. Naturalistic and energetic figurine line drawings were entirely new and became the most influential innovation of Carolinian art in later periods.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Carolingian Manuscript Workshops<\/h3>\n<p>Carolingian manuscripts are presumed to have been produced largely or entirely by clerics in a few workshops around the Carolingian Empire. Each of these workshops practiced its own style that developed based on the artists and influences of that particular location and time. The earliest workshop was the Court School of Charlemagne, then the Rheimsian workshop (which became the most influential of the Carolingian period), the Touronian style, the Drogo style, and the Court School of Charles II (the Bald).<\/p>\n<h3>The Court School of Charlemagne<\/h3>\n<p>The Court School of Charlemagne (also known as the Ada School) produced the earliest manuscripts, including the\u00a0<em>Godescalc Evangelistary<\/em>\u00a0(781\u2013783), the\u00a0<em>Lorsch Gospels<\/em>\u00a0(778\u2013820, ), the\u00a0<em>Ada Gospels<\/em>, the\u00a0<em>Soissons Gospels<\/em>, the\u00a0<em>Harley Golden Gospels<\/em>\u00a0(800-820), and the\u00a0<em>Vienna Coronation Gospels<\/em>. The Court School manuscripts were ornate and elaborate, reminiscent of sixth-century ivories and mosaics from Ravenna, Italy. The Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism, yet maintained Migration-Period artistic (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9600\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 564px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163543\/codexaureus-02-1.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"564\" height=\"774\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Lorsch Gospels:<\/strong> Ivory book cover with carvings. The Lorsch Gospels reflect its origin in the Court School of Charlemagne with its Late Antiquity Imperial scenes adapted to a Christian theme.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Rheims School<\/h3>\n<p>In the early ninth century, Archbishop Ebbo of Rheims assembled clerical artists and transformed Carolingian art. The expressive animations of the Rheims School would have an influence on northern medieval art for centuries to follow, far into the Romanesque period. One example was the Gospel <em>Book of Ebbo<\/em> (816\u2013835), painted with swift, fresh, vibrant brushstrokes that evoked inspiration and energy unknown in classical Mediterranean forms. This emotionalism was new to Carolingian art. Figures in the <em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0are represented in nervous, agitated poses. The illustration uses an energetic, streaky style with swift brush strokes. The style directly influenced manuscript illumination for decades, as seen in the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>\u00a0<em>Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>. The evangelist portrait\u00a0of Matthew in the\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0is similar to the illustration of the psalmist in the first psalm of the\u00a0<em>Utrecht Psalter<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34728\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 343px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/lrjjtrmsiijcl3k44bvv.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"343\" height=\"474\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Saint Matthew, from the Ebbo Gospels (816-35): <\/strong>Portrait of Matthew, depicting him sitting and writing in the foreground. The wavy lines that form the details on Matthew\u2019s clothing and the diagonal lines adding detail to the background and foreground are examples of the energetic subject matter in the\u00a0Ebbo Gospels.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Other books associated with the Rheims school include the\u00a0<em>Utrecht Psalter<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0<em>Bern Physiologus\u00a0<\/em>(825-850), the earliest Latin edition of the Christian allegorical text on animals. Many of its miniatures are set unframed into the text block, which was a characteristic of Late-Antique manuscripts. For this reason, it is believed to be a copy of a fifth-century manuscript. This is one of the oldest extant illustrated copies of the\u00a0<em>Physiologus<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34729\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 295px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/owbcievgsx9frsd74jtq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"295\" height=\"393\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Bern Physiologus, Folio 12v (825-850 CE):<\/strong> Image of the text and drawings from the\u00a0Bern Physiologus, showing the miniatures drawn unframed into the text block. This is typical of late Antique manuscripts, leading scholars to believe that it is a copy of a fifth-century original.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>St. Martin of Tours<\/h3>\n<p>Another style developed at the monastery of St. Martin of Tours in which large Bibles were illustrated based on late Antique Bible illustrations. Three large Touronian Bibles were created. One of the best examples was the\u00a0<em>Vivian Bible<\/em>\u00a0(c. 846), commissioned by Count Vivien, the lay abbot of St. Martin of Tours, and presented to Charles the Bald. The Tours School was cut short by the invasion of the Normans in 853, but its style had already left a permanent mark on other centers in the Carolingian Empire.<\/p>\n<h3>Charles the Bald Court School<\/h3>\n<p>Charles the Bald established a Court School that fused Touronian, Rhemsian, and Charlemagne Court School styles. Several manuscripts are attributed to this institution, and the\u00a0<em>Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>\u00a0(870) was the last and most spectacular. The school\u2019s location at the time is unknown as its previous base at St Martin\u2019s Abbey in Tours was destroyed in 853, but it had probably moved to the Basilica of St. Denis outside Paris by the time of the production of the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>. Seven full-page miniatures show the four evangelists, Charles the Bald enthroned, the Adoration of the Lamb, and a Christ in Majesty.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34730\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 414px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/uys9utw6s3cv9xldrasa.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"414\" height=\"559\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Charles the Bald, from the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (c. 870):<\/strong> Depiction of Charles the Bald enthroned, surrounded by angels and saints. The Hand of God reaches down from beneath the red canopy, hovering over the emperor\u2019s head.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Carolingian Metalwork in the Early European Middle Ages<\/h2>\n<p>Carolingian metalworkers primarily worked with gold, ivory, gems, and other precious materials.<\/p>\n<p>Carolingian-era metalworkers primarily worked with gold, gems, ivory, and other precious materials. For instance, luxury Carolingian manuscripts were given treasure bindings and elaborately ornate covers in precious metals set with jewels around central carved ivory panels. Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images, such as the front and back covers of the Lorsch Gospels, were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art.<\/p>\n<h3>Charles the Bald\u2019s Palace School Workshop<\/h3>\n<p>Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald\u2019s Palace School workshop, and include the cover of the Lindau Gospels, the cover of the\u00a0<em>Codex<\/em>\u00a0<em>Aureus of St. Emmeram<\/em>, and the\u00a0<em>Arnulf Ciborium<\/em>. All three of these works feature fine relief figures in <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_1070_1142\">repouss\u00e9<\/a> gold. Another work associated with the Palace School is the frame of an antique serpentine dish, now located in the Louvre.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/31222\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 382px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31163445\/codex-aureus-sankt-emmeram.jpeg\" alt=\"image\" width=\"382\" height=\"495\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram (870 CE):<\/strong> Gold and gem encrusted cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, 870. Produced by the Carolingian Palace School.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Under Charlemagne, there was a revival of large-scale bronze casting in imitation of Roman designs, although metalwork in gold continued to develop. For example, the Aachen chapel\u2019s figure of Christ in gold (now lost) was the first known work of this type and became a crucial inspiring feature of northern European medieval art. Another one of the finest examples of Carolingian metalwork is the <em>Golden Altar<\/em>\u00a0(824\u2013859), also known as the\u00a0<em>Paliotto<\/em>, in the Basilica of Sant\u2019Ambrogio in Milan (since damaged by World War II bombings). The altar\u2019s four sides are decorated with images in gold and silver repouss\u00e9 framed by borders of filigree, precious stones, and enamel.<\/p>\n<h3>An Imperial Portrait<\/h3>\n<p>Charlemagne\u2019s personal appearance is known from a good description by a personal associate Einhard, whose biography of the emperor describes him as tall and well-built with a round head and wide eyes. This written portrait is confirmed by contemporary depictions of the emperor, his exhumed body, and sculptures believed to depict his likeness. One possibility is a bronze equestrian statuette once housed in Aachen Cathedral. Typical of sculpture in the round produced during the Carolingian period, the statuette is small, approximately eight inches high. The rider is depicted with a mustache, an open crown on his head, and a riding cloak fastened with a fibula. Like the architecture and painting of the time, this sculpture reflects Charlemagne\u2019s desire to recreate the Roman Empire, as it bears similarities with a large-scale bronze equestrian portrait of Marcus Aurelius from the second century. Similar to the ancient Roman emperor, the mounted Carolingian ruler wears a calm expression as he rides without holding the reins. Rather, he holds a sword (now lost) in his right hand and an imperial orb in his left. Unlike its ancient predecessor, the horse does not pounce on a missing enemy but calmly prances, reflecting the stateliness of the rider.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34969\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 311px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/elezr77hqk2gh1vklevp.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"image\" width=\"311\" height=\"460\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Equestrian Statuette of a Carolingian Ruler, Possibly Charlemagne (c. 870):<\/strong> Statuette of Charlemagne (?) mounted on a horse holding a sword on a marble base. 8 inches high. \u00a0Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Wolf\u2019s Door<\/h3>\n<p>Bronze is also featured in many decorative elements of Carolingian westwork at Aachen Cathedral. Known as the Wolf\u2019s Door, the main entrance consists of heavy bronze leaves. Each leaf is divided into eight rectangles\u2014a number that had religious symbolism in Christianity, as a symbol of Sunday, the day of the Resurrection. These boxes were framed by decorative strips, which are made of egg-shaped decorations. The egg was considered a symbol of life and fertility from antiquity. In Christian belief, it was imbued with the even wider symbolism of Eternal Life. The door-rings in the shape of lions\u2019 heads are wreathed by 24 stylized acanthus scrolls\u2014again to be understood at the deepest level through numerology. The Wolf\u2019s Door\u2019s imitation of the shape of the ancient Roman temple door signifies Charlemagne\u2019s claim to have established a New Rome in Aachen with the Palatine Chapel as the distinctive monumental building.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Carolingian art comes from the Frankish Empire from about 780 to 900 CE, during the reign of Charlemagne and his immediate heirs. This period is popularly known as the Carolingian Renaissance.<\/li>\n<li>Some fragmentary frescoes have survived, allowing art historians to theoretically conceptualize Carolingian painting. Examples of surviving fragments include those at the Abbey of Saint John at M\u00fcstair and Saint Benedikt at Mals.<\/li>\n<li>Mosaics, created by assembling small pieces of coloured glass, stone, pigments, and other materials, were created in Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel. Examples of well-preserved surviving frescoes can be found at Charlemagne\u2019s Palatine Chapel at Aachen and Germigny-des-Pr\u00e9s.<\/li>\n<li>Carolingian churches are generally basilican like the Early Christian churches of Rome and commonly incorporated westworks .<\/li>\n<li>As the earliest producer of Carolingian manuscripts, the Court School of Charlemagne initiated a revival of Roman classicism yet maintained Migration Period art (Merovingian and Insular) traditions in their linear presentation, with no concern for volume and spatial relationships.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<em>Drogo Sacramentary<\/em> introduced the historiated initial to manuscript illumination. It became standard in manuscripts for the remainder of the Middle Ages.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<em>Utrecht\u00a0<\/em><em>Psalter<\/em>\u00a0was perhaps the most important of all Carolingian manuscripts because of its innovative and naturalistic figurine line drawings. These became the most influential innovation of Carolingian art.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>\u00a0introduced expressive and energetic lines that were unprecedented in illumination and influenced the art form for decades.<\/li>\n<li>Metalwork subjects were often narrative religious scenes in vertical sections, largely derived from Late Antique paintings and carvings. Those with more hieratic images were derived from consular diptychs and other imperial art.<\/li>\n<li>Important Carolingian examples of metalwork came out of Charles the Bald\u2019s \u201cPalace School\u201d workshop.<\/li>\n<li>Carolingian-era metalwork produced large statues cast entirely in gold that would influence the development of monumental, elaborate sculptures and altars made from precious materials in northern European medieval art.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adapted from <strong>&#8220;Boundless Art History&#8221;<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-carolingians\/ <strong>License<\/strong>:<span style=\"color: #993300\"><strong>\u00a0<em><a style=\"color: #993300\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_1070_1303\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1303\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The technique of applying pigment, mixed with water, to wet plaster. As the pigment and plaster dry they fuse together and the painting physically becomes a part of the wall.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1070_1263\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1263\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A piece of artwork created by placing coloured squares (usually tiles) in a pattern to create a picture.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1070_1219\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1219\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A simple roof with a curved, often semicircular, cross-section used to span large distances and usually supported on columns.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1070_1273\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1273\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The intersection at right angles of two barrel vaults.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1070_1287\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1287\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A book in which the text is supplemented by decoration, such as initials, borders (marginalia), and miniature illustrations.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_1070_1142\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_1070_1142\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A metalworking technique in which a thin sheet of malleable metal is shaped by hammering from the reverse side to create a design in low relief.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":961,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1070","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":804,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1070","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/961"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1070\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2225,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1070\/revisions\/2225"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/804"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1070\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1070"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1070"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1070"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1070"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}