{"id":770,"date":"2020-09-23T12:23:13","date_gmt":"2020-09-23T16:23:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=770"},"modified":"2021-01-30T17:44:17","modified_gmt":"2021-01-30T22:44:17","slug":"hellenistic","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/chapter\/hellenistic\/","title":{"raw":"Hellenistic Period","rendered":"Hellenistic Period"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"nav-container\">\r\n<div class=\"sub-nav\">\r\n<div class=\"sub-nav-wrapper\">\r\n<div class=\"author-wrap\">\r\n\r\nThe Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, and ended with the Roman victory at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. Greece poleis spent this time under the hegemony of foreign rulers, first the Macedons and then the Romans, starting in 146 BCE.\r\n\r\nNew centers of Hellenic culture flourished through Greece and on foreign soil, including the cities of Pergamon, Antioch, and Alexandria\u2014the capitals of the Attalids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"author-wrap\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the form, content, and context of key Hellenistic works<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define critical terms related to the Hellenistic period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the characteristics of Hellenistic architecture, including stoas, the Corinthian order, and the use of theatricality<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Illustrate the dramatic and theatrical nature of the Pergamon, as seen in the Altar of Zeus, the Gigantomachy, and the Dying Gauls<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrast the new Hellenistic style of sculpture from the previous Classical era, and discuss the significance of Roman patronage in the second century BCE<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3>Architecture in the Hellenistic Period<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\r\n<div id=\"wrap\">\r\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\r\n<div id=\"post-1682\" class=\"standard post-1682 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n\r\nArchitecture during the Hellenistic period focused on theatricality and drama; the period also saw increased popularity of the Corinthian order. Architecture in the Greek world during the Hellenistic period developed theatrical tendencies, as had Hellenistic sculpture. The conquests of Alexander the Great caused power to shift from the city-states of Greece to the ruling dynasties. Dynastic families patronized large complexes and dramatic urban plans within their cities. These urban plans often focused on the natural setting and were intended to enhance views and create dramatic civic, judicial, and market spaces that differed from the orthogonal plans of the houses that surrounded them.\r\n\r\nArchitecture in the Hellenistic period is most commonly associated with the growing popularity of the Corinthian order. However, the [pb_glossary id=\"1711\"]Doric[\/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id=\"1712\"]Ionic[\/pb_glossary] orders underwent notable changes. Examples include the slender and unfluted Doric columns and the four-fronted capitals on Ionic columns, the latter of which helped to solve design problems concerning symmetry on the temple porticos.\r\n<h3>Stoa<\/h3>\r\nA stoa, or a covered walkway or portico, was used to bind agorae and other public spaces. Highlighting the edge of open areas with such decorative architecture created a theatrical effect for the public space and also provided citizens with a basic daily form of protection from the elements. Both the stoa and the agora were used by merchants, artists, religious festivals, judicial courts, and civic administrations.\r\n\r\nThe Stoa of Attalos (c. 150 BCE) in Athens was built in the Agora, under the patronage of King Attalos II of Pergamon. This portico consists of a double colonnade. It was two stories, tall, and had a row of rooms on the ground floor. The exterior colonnade on the ground level was built in the Doric order, and the interior was Ionic. On the second level, Ionic columns lined the exterior, and columns with a simple, stylized capital lined the interior.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13378\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"521\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155742\/stoa-in-athens.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a recent photo of the restored Stoa of Attalos. This is a view of the ground-level marble colonnades in the Agora in Athens, Greece.\" width=\"521\" height=\"391\" \/> <em><strong>The restored Stoa of Attalos:<\/strong> This is a view of the ground-level marble colonnades in the Agora in Athens, Greece.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Temple of Apollo at Didyma<\/h3>\r\nOther examples of grand and monumental architecture can be found in Ionia, modern-day Turkey in Pergamon, and Didyma. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was both a temple and an oracle site.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13381\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"523\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155745\/didyma.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. Begun around 313 BCE, this was both a temple and an oracle site in Didyma, Turkey.\" width=\"523\" height=\"392\" \/> <em><strong>Temple of Apollo:<\/strong> Begun around 313 BCE, this was both a temple and an oracle site in Didyma, Turkey.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe temple was designed by the architects Paionios of Ephesus and Daphnis of Miletus. Its construction began in 313 BCE but was never completed, although work continued until the second century CE. This temple\u2019s site is vast. The interior court was 71 feet wide by 175 feet long and contained a small shrine. The court was also dipteral in form, edged with a double row of 108 columns, each 65 feet tall, that surrounded the temple. The structure creates a series of imposing spaces, from the exterior colonnade to the oracle rooms, and the interior courtyard inside of which the shrine to Apollo stood. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof. The building is dramatically different from the perfected Classical plan of temples. Instead of focusing on symmetry and harmony, the building focuses on the experience of the viewer.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13380\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"370\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155748\/hypaethraltempel.png\" alt=\"This shows the ground plan and elevation of the Temple of Apollo. Construction began around 313 BCE, in Didyma, Turkey. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof.\" width=\"370\" height=\"370\" \/> <em><strong>Plan and elevation of the Temple of Apollo:<\/strong> Construction began c. 313 BCE, in Didyma, Turkey. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Corinthian Order<\/h3>\r\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"1719\"]Corinthian[\/pb_glossary] order is considered the third order of Classical architecture. The order\u2019s columns are slender and [pb_glossary id=\"1676\"]fluted[\/pb_glossary] and sit atop a base. The [pb_glossary id=\"1154\"]capital[\/pb_glossary] consists of a double layer of [pb_glossary id=\"1204\"]acanthus leaves[\/pb_glossary] and stylized plant tendrils that curl up towards the [pb_glossary id=\"1200\"]abacus[\/pb_glossary] in the shape of a scroll or [pb_glossary id=\"1202\"]volute[\/pb_glossary]. The decorative Corinthian order was not widely adopted in Greece, although it was popular in tholoi. It was, however, used substantially throughout the Roman period.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13379\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"520\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155750\/corinthian-capital-agora.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a recent photo of a corinthian capital at the Odeon of Agrippa, in the Agora at Athens, Greece.\" width=\"520\" height=\"424\" \/> <em><strong>Corinthian capital:<\/strong> A Corinthian capital at the Odeon of Agrippa, c. 14 BCE, in the Agora in Athens, Greece.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe ruined Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (also known as the Olympieion) contains one of the best-known examples of the Corinthian column in Hellenistic architecture. Originally designed in the Doric order in the sixth century BCE, the temple was redesigned in the second century BCE in the Corinthian order on a colossal platform measuring 134.5\u00a0feet by 353.5 feet.\r\n\r\nIt was to be flanked by a double [pb_glossary id=\"1232\"]colonnade[\/pb_glossary] of eight columns across the front and back and twenty-one on the flanks, surrounding the cella. The design was eventually changed to have three rows of eight columns across the front and back of the temple and a double row of twenty on the flanks, for a total of 104 columns. The columns stand 55.5 feet high and 6.5 feet in diameter. In 164 BCE, the death of Antiochus IV (who had presented himself as the earthly embodiment of Zeus) brought the project to a halt, and the temple would remain incomplete.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33877\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"502\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/urcpbywirgfxljiiahvr.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Temple of Olympian Zeus. Note the corinthian colonnades and Pentelic marble on the ruins of the temple.\" width=\"502\" height=\"442\" \/> <em><strong>Temple of Olympian Zeus:<\/strong> Note the Corinthian colonnades and Pentelic marble.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Pergamon<\/h2>\r\nPergamon rose as a power under the Attalids and provides examples of the drama and theatrics found in Hellenistic art and architecture. The ancient city of Pergamon, now modern-day Bergama in Turkey, was the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon following the death of Alexander the Great and was ruled under the Attalid dynasty. The Acropolis of Pergamon is a prime example of Hellenistic architecture and the convergence of nature and architectural design to create dramatic and theatrical sites.\r\n\r\nThe acropolis was built into and on top of a steep hill that commands great views of the surrounding countryside. Both the upper and lower portions of the acropolis were home to many important structures of urban life, including gymnasiums, agorae, baths, libraries, a theatre, shrines, temples, and altars.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33878\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"514\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/kp1lnnvri2vandv7q8s7.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of a scale model of Pergamon as described in the caption.\" width=\"514\" height=\"299\" \/> <em><strong>Scale model of Pergamon as it might have looked in antiquity:<\/strong> Center-left: Theatre of Pergamon. Center right: Altar of Zeus. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe theatre at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theatres in the ancient world. Like all Hellenic theatres, it was built into the hillside, which supported the structure and provided stadium seating that would have overlooked the ancient city and its surrounding countryside. The theatre is one example of the creation and use of dramatic and theatrical architecture.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33879\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"484\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/mvmr1hxsqs9ozpdubizg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the theater of Pergamon.\" width=\"484\" height=\"326\" \/> <em><strong>Theatre of Pergamon:<\/strong> The theatre at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theatres in the ancient world.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Altar of Zeus<\/h3>\r\nAnother element found at Pergamon is the great Altar of Zeus (now housed in Germany). The altar was commissioned in the first half of the second century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the [pb_glossary id=\"1206\"]Gauls[\/pb_glossary], who were migrating into Asia Minor.\r\n\r\nThe altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top. It faced east, was located near the theatre of Pergamon, and commanded an outstanding view of the region. The altar is known for its grand design and for its frieze depicting the Gigantomachy\u2014it wraps 370 feet around the base of the altar.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13391\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"552\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155754\/driss-pergamonlatar-rotate.jpeg\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of the Altar of Zeus.\" width=\"552\" height=\"495\" \/> <em><strong>Plan of the Altar of Zeus:<\/strong> The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top, c. 175 BCE, in Bergama, Turkey.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13393\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"647\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155757\/in-pergamonmuseum-altar-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Altar of Zeus. The structure is 35.64 metres wide and 33.4 metres deep; the front stairway alone is almost 20 metres wide. The base is decorated with a frieze in high relief showing the battle between the Giants and the Olympian gods known as the Gigantomachy.\" width=\"647\" height=\"197\" \/> <em><strong>Altar of Zeus:<\/strong> Originally from Bergama, Turkey, the altar is now in Berlin, Germany.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Gigantomachy<\/h3>\r\nThe Gigantomachy depicts the Olympian gods fighting against their predecessors the Giants (Titans), the children of the goddess Gaia. The frieze is known for its incredibly high relief, in which the figures are barely restrained by the wall, and for its deep drilling of lines with details to create dramatic shadows.\r\n\r\nThe high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increase the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. The figures are rendered with high plasticity. The texture of their skin, drapery, and scales add another level of naturalism. Furthermore, as the frieze follows the stairs, the limbs of the figures begin to spill out of their frame and onto the stairs, physically breaking into the space of the viewer. The style and high drama of the scenes are often referred to as the Hellenistic Baroque for its exaggerated motion, emphasis on details, and the liveliness of the characters.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13394\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"583\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155800\/2c-okeanos-pergamonaltar-.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the relief of Nereus, Doris, a Giant, and Oceanus, the ocean gods gathered together.\" width=\"583\" height=\"437\" \/> <em><strong>Nereus, Doris, a Giant, and Oceanus:<\/strong> Located on the north frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Bergama, Turkey, c. 175 BCE. The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increase the liveliness and naturalism of the scene.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe most famous scene on the [pb_glossary id=\"1018\"]frieze[\/pb_glossary] depicts Athena fighting the giant Alkyoneus. She grabs his head and pulls it back while Gaia emerges from the ground to plead for her son\u2019s life and a winged Nike reaches over to crown Athena. Athena\u2019s drapery swirls around her with deep folds and her whole body is nearly removed from the frieze. The figures are depicted with the heightened emotion commonly found on Hellenistic statues. Alkyoneus\u2019s face strains in pain and Gaia\u2019s eyes, which are all that remain of her face, are full of terror and sorrow at the death of her son.\r\n\r\nThe entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape. Athena stretches out to grasps Alkoyneus\u2019s head, the two figures pull at each other in opposite directions. Meanwhile, the figure of Nike moves diagonally towards Athena, showing their convergence in a moment of victory. The diagonal line created by Gaia mimics the shape of her son, connecting the two figures through line and pathos. The scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13392\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"583\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155803\/nsammlung-pergamonaltar-13.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the frieze depicting Athena and Alkyoneos. Athena grabs the hair of the giant Alkyoneos as Nike flies to crown her.\" width=\"583\" height=\"437\" \/> <em><strong>Athena and Alkyoneos:<\/strong> Located on the east frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Bargama, Turkey, c. 175 BCE. The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape, and the scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Dying Gauls<\/h3>\r\nA group of statues depicting dying [pb_glossary id=\"1206\"]Gauls[\/pb_glossary], the defeated enemies of the Attalids, were situated inside the Altar of Zeus. The original set of statues is believed to have been cast in bronze by the court sculptor Epigonus in 230\u2013220 BCE. Now only marble Roman copies of the figures remain.\r\n\r\nLike the figures on the frieze and other Hellenistic sculptures, the figures are depicted with lifelike details and a high level of naturalism. They are also depicted in the common motif of barbarians. The men are nude and wear Celtic torcs. Their hair is shaggy and dishevelled. The figures are positioned in dramatic compositions and are shown dying heroically, which turns them into worthy adversaries, increasing the perception of the power of the Attalid dynasty. All three figures in the group are depicted in a Hellenistic manner. To fully appreciate the statues, it is best to walk around them. Their pain, nobility, and death are evident from all angles.\r\n\r\nOne Gaul is depicted lying down, supporting himself over his shield and a discarded trumpet. He furrows his brow as he looks downward at his bleeding chest wound as he prepares himself for death. His muscles are large and strong, signifying his strength as a warrior and implying the strength of the one who struck him down.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13395\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"582\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155807\/dying-gaul.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Dying Gaul. The white marble statue depicts a wounded, slumping male figure. A bleeding sword puncture is visible in his lower right chest.\" width=\"582\" height=\"473\" \/> <em><strong>Dying Gaul:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Epigonos, \u00a0c. 230\u2013220 BCE, in Pergamon, Turkey.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nTwo other figures complete the group. One figure depicts a Gallic chief committing suicide after he has killed his own wife. Also known as the Ludovisi Gaul, this sculpture group displays another heroic and noble deed of the foes, for typically women and children of the defeated would be murdered to avoid them from being captured and sold as slaves by the victors. The chief holds his fallen wife by the arm as he plunges his sword into his chest, where blood is already exiting the wound.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33880\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"337\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/fvkszmyitrewm7cw9ces.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Ludovisi Gaul statue depicting a man in the act of plunging a sword into his breast, looking backwards defiantly while he supports the dying figure of a woman with his left arm.\" width=\"337\" height=\"511\" \/> <em><strong>Dying Gaul:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Epigonos, \u00a0c. 230\u2013220 BCE, in Pergamon, Turkey.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Sculpture in the Hellenistic Period<\/h2>\r\nA key component of Hellenistic sculpture is the expression of a sculpture\u2019s face and body to elicit an emotional response from the viewer. Hellenistic sculpture continues the trend of increasing naturalism seen in the stylistic development of Greek art. During this time, the rules of Classical art were pushed and abandoned in favour of new themes, genres, drama, and pathos that were never explored by previous Greek artists. Furthermore, the Greek artists added a new level of naturalism to their figures by adding elasticity to their form and expressions, both facial and physical. These figures interact with their audience in a new theatrical manner by eliciting an emotional reaction from their view\u2014this is known as pathos.\r\n<h3>Nike of Samothrace<\/h3>\r\nOne of the most iconic statues of the period, the Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), commemorates a naval victory. This Parian marble statue depicts Nike, now armless and headless, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is visible beneath her feet, and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue reacts to her surroundings.\r\n\r\nNike\u2019s feet, legs, and body thrust forward in contradiction to her drapery and wings that stream backwards. Her clothing whips around her from the wind and her wings lift upwards. This depiction provides the impression that she has just landed and that this is the precise moment that she is settling onto the ship\u2019s prow. In addition to the sculpting, the figure was most likely set within a fountain, creating a theatrical setting where both the imagery and the auditory effect of the fountain would create a striking image of action and triumph.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13389\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"569\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155811\/f-samothrake-louvre-ma2369.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory (circa 190 BCE). This marble statue, in Samothrace, Greece, commemorates a naval victory.\" width=\"569\" height=\"861\" \/> <em><strong>Nike of Samothrace:<\/strong> Also known as the Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), this marble statue, in Samothrace, Greece, commemorates a naval victory.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Venus de Milo<\/h3>\r\nAlso known as the Aphrodite of Melos (c. 130\u2013100 BCE), this sculpture by Alexandros of Antioch, is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period. Today the goddess\u2019s arms are missing. It has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other arm held out an apple, an allusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen.\r\n\r\nOriginally, like all Greek sculptures, the statue would have been painted and adorned with metal jewelry, which is evident from the attachment holes. This image is in some ways similar to Praxitiles\u2019 Late Classical sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos (fourth century BCE), but it is considered to be more erotic than its earlier counterpart. For instance, while she is covered below the waist, Aphrodite makes little attempt to cover herself. She appears to be teasing and ignoring her viewer, instead of accosting him and making eye contact.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13388\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"556\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155814\/aphrodite-of-milos.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo Venus de Milo, and it is believed to depict Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty. The statue depicts a woman's face in profile view and a body in frontal view. She is nude from the waist up. She has idealized abdominal muscles, and her lower body is clothed in draped fabric. She is missing both her arms.\" width=\"556\" height=\"742\" \/> <em><strong>Venus de Milo:<\/strong> This marble statue, in Melos, Greece, was sculpted by Alexandros of Antioch, c. 130\u2013100 BCE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Altered States<\/h3>\r\nWhile the Nike of Samothrace exudes a sense of drama and the Venus de Milo a new level of feminine sexuality, other Greek sculptors explored new states of being. Instead of reproducing images of the ideal Greek male or female, as was favoured during the Classical period, sculptors began to depict images of the old, tired, sleeping, and drunk\u2014none of which are ideal representations of a man or woman.\r\n<h3>The Barberini Faun<\/h3>\r\nThe Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (c. 220 BCE), depicts an effeminate figure, most likely a satyr, drunk and passed out on a rock. His body splays across the rock face without regard to modesty. He appears to have fallen to sleep in the midst of drunken revelry and he sleeps restlessly, his brow is knotted, face worried, and his limbs are tense and stiff. Unlike earlier depicts of nude men, but in a similar manner to the Venus de Milo, the Barberini Faun seems to exude sexuality.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13387\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"482\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155817\/t-glyptothek-munich-218-n1.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue the Barberini Faun. It depicts a nude male, seated with his legs spread and his arm behind his head.\" width=\"482\" height=\"780\" \/> <em><strong>Barberini Faun:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy, in Rome, Italy, of the Greek bronze original, c. 220 BCE. Italy.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Drunken Old Woman<\/h3>\r\nImages of drunkenness were also created of women, which can be seen in a statue attributed to the Hellenistic artist Myron of a drunken beggar woman. This woman sits on the floor with her arms and legs wrapped around a large jug and a hand gripping the jug\u2019s neck. Grapevines decorating the top of the jug make it clear that it holds wine. The woman\u2019s face, instead of being expressionless, is turned upward and she appears to be calling out, possibly to passersby. Not only is she intoxicated, but she is old: deep wrinkles line her face, her eyes are sunken, and her bones stick out through her skin.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13385\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"400\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155820\/bebada2.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Drunken Old Woman. The sculpture depicts an old woman squatting on the ground holding a container in her lap.\" width=\"400\" height=\"730\" \/> <em><strong>Drunken Old Woman:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Myron, c. 200\u2013180 BCE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Seated Boxer<\/h3>\r\nAnother image of the old and weary is a bronze statue of a seated boxer. While the image of an athlete is a common theme in Greek art, this bronze presents a Hellenistic twist. He is old and tired, much like the Late Classical image of a Weary Herakles. However, unlike Herakles, the boxer is depicted as beaten and exhausted from his pursuit. His face is swollen, lip spilt, and ears cauliflowered. This is not an image of a heroic, young athlete but rather an old, defeated man many years past his prime.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13383\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"513\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155823\/rmae-boxer-massimo-inv1055.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the bronze statue, Seated Boxer. That statue depicts a sitting nude boxer at rest, still wearing his caestus, a type of leather hand-wrap. He appears to be looking up and behind him.\" width=\"513\" height=\"831\" \/> <em><strong>Seated Boxer:<\/strong> This bronze statue, c. 100\u201350 BCE, is in Rome, Italy.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Portraiture<\/h3>\r\nIndividual portraits, instead of idealization, also became popular during the Hellenistic period. A portrait of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos (280 BCE) is not an idealization of the Athenian statesman and orator. Instead, the statue takes notes of Demosthenes\u2019s characteristic features, including his overbite, furrowed brow, stooped shoulders, and old, loose skin. Even portrait busts, often copied from Polyeuktos\u2019 famed statue, depict the weariness and sorrow of a man despairing the conquest of Philip II and the end of Athenian democracy.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13382\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"553\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155826\/thenes-chiaramonti-inv1555.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the portrait bust of Demosthenes, a bearded man with wavy hair and a receded hairline. His forehead is wrinkled and his eyes are closed.\" width=\"553\" height=\"801\" \/> <em><strong>Demosthenes:<\/strong> This is a Roman copy of the Greek, bronze, original portrait bust by Polyeuktos.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Roman Patronage<\/h3>\r\nThe Greek peninsula fell to Roman power in 146 BCE. Greece was a key province of the Roman Empire, and Roman interest in Greek culture helped to circulate Greek art around the empire, especially in Italy, during the Hellenistic period and into the Imperial period of Roman hegemony.\r\n\r\nGreek sculptors were in high demand throughout the remaining territories of Alexander\u2019s empire and then throughout the Roman Empire. Famous Greek statues were copied and replicated for wealthy Roman patricians and Greek artists were commissioned for large-scale sculptures in the Hellenistic style. Originally cast in bronze, many Greek sculptures that we have today survive only as marble Roman copies. Some of the most famous colossal marble groups were sculpted in the Hellenistic style for wealthy Roman patrons and for the imperial court. Despite their Roman audience, these were purposely created in the Greek style and continued to display the drama, tension, and pathos of Hellenistic art.\r\n<h3>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons<\/h3>\r\nLaoco\u00f6n was a Trojan priest of Poseidon who warned the Trojans, \u201cBeware of Greeks bearing gifts,\u201d when the Greeks left a large wooden horse at the gates of Troy. Athena or Poseidon (depending on the story\u2019s version), upset by his vain warning to his people, sent two sea serpents to torture and kill the priest and his two sons. Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons, a Hellenistic marble sculpture group (attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes) were created in the early first century CE to depict this scene from Virgil\u2019s epic, The Aeneid.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33883\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"538\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/v3cv5rpptdsjvhmtexuo.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons. This marble statue is attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes.\" width=\"538\" height=\"517\" \/> <em><strong>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons: <\/strong>This marble statue is attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSimilar to other examples of Hellenistic sculpture, Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons depicts a chiastic scene filled with drama, tension, and pathos. The figures writhe as they are caught in the coils of the serpents. The faces of the three men are filled with agony and toil, which is reflected in the tension and strain of their muscles. Laoco\u00f6n stretches out in a long diagonal from his right arm to his left as he attempts to free himself. His sons are also entangled by the serpents, and their faces react to their doom with confusion and despair. The carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling, seen in Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s hair and beard, are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33884\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"539\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/rlzbjqlttygnotkfspjz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons that focuses on Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s face. It shows the carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling that are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.\" width=\"539\" height=\"485\" \/> <em><strong>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons:<\/strong> This detail of Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s face shows the carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling that are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Farnese Bull<\/h3>\r\nThe Farnese Bull (c. 200\u2013180 BCE), named for the patrician Roman family who owned the statue in the Italian Renaissance, is believed to have been created for the collection of Asinius Pollio, a Roman patrician. Pliny the Elder attributes the statue to the artists and brothers Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.\r\n\r\nThe colossal marble statue, carved from a single block of marble, depicts the myth of Dirce, the wife of the King of Thebes, who was tied to a bull by the sons of Antiope to punish her for mistreating their mother. The composition is large and dramatic and demands the viewer to encircle it in order to view and appreciate the narrative and pathos from all angles. The various angles reveal different expressions, from the terror of Dirce, to the determination of Antiope\u2019s sons, to the savagery of the bull.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33885\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"567\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/5gdolcfet9eisnh0cdgq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Farnese Bull. This huge marble statue, circa 200 to 180 BCE, was sculpted by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.\" width=\"567\" height=\"580\" \/> <em><strong>Farnese Bull:<\/strong> This marble statue, c. 200\u2013180 BCE, was sculpted by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Hellenistic architecture, in a manner similar to Hellenistic sculpture, focuses on theatricality, drama, and the experience of the viewer. Public spaces and temples were created with the people in mind, and so were built on a new, monumental scale.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Stoas are colonnaded porticos used to define public space and protect patrons from the elements. Stoas are often found around a city\u2019s agora, and turn the city\u2019s central place for civic, administrative, and market elements into a grand space.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Corinthian order, developed during the Classical period, witnessed increased popularity during the Hellenistic period. The columnar style of the order is similar in many ways to the Ionic order except for the column\u2019s capital, which is vegetal and lush. A double layer of acanthus leaves lines the basket from which stylized tendrils and volutes emerge.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pergamon was the capital city of the Kingdom of Pergamon, which was ruled by the Attalids in the centuries following the death of Alexander the Great.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Acropolis of Pergamon is famous for its monumental architecture. Most of the buildings command a great view of the surrounding countryside and together create a dramatic public space.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Altar of Zeus at Pergamon was a monumental u-shaped Ionic building that stood on a high platform and was accessed by a wide set of stairs. Besides its dramatic architecture, the altar is known for its Gigantomachy frieze and sculptures of defeated Gauls.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hellenistic sculpture takes the naturalism of the body\u2019s form and expression to a level of hyper-realism where the expression of the sculpture\u2019s face and body elicit an emotional response.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Drama and pathos are new factors in Hellenistic sculpture. The style of the sculpting is no longer idealized. Rather, they are often exaggerated, and details are emphasized to add a new, heightened level of motion and pathos.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>New compositions and states of mind are explored in Hellenistic sculptures including old age, drunkenness, sleep, agony, and despair.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Portraiture became popular in this period. The subjects are depicted with a sense of naturalism that displays their imperfections.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hellenistic sculpture was in especially high demand after the Greek peninsula fell to the Romans in 146 BCE. Notable sculptures produced for Roman patrons include Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons and the Farnese Bull.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdapted from\u00a0<strong>\"Boundless Art History\"<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-hellenistic-period\/\u00a0<strong>License: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"nav-container\">\n<div class=\"sub-nav\">\n<div class=\"sub-nav-wrapper\">\n<div class=\"author-wrap\">\n<p>The Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, and ended with the Roman victory at the Battle of Actium in 30 BCE. Greece poleis spent this time under the hegemony of foreign rulers, first the Macedons and then the Romans, starting in 146 BCE.<\/p>\n<p>New centers of Hellenic culture flourished through Greece and on foreign soil, including the cities of Pergamon, Antioch, and Alexandria\u2014the capitals of the Attalids, Seleucids, and Ptolemies.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"author-wrap\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss the form, content, and context of key Hellenistic works<\/li>\n<li>Define critical terms related to the Hellenistic period<\/li>\n<li>Describe the characteristics of Hellenistic architecture, including stoas, the Corinthian order, and the use of theatricality<\/li>\n<li>Illustrate the dramatic and theatrical nature of the Pergamon, as seen in the Altar of Zeus, the Gigantomachy, and the Dying Gauls<\/li>\n<li>Contrast the new Hellenistic style of sculpture from the previous Classical era, and discuss the significance of Roman patronage in the second century BCE<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3>Architecture in the Hellenistic Period<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\n<div id=\"wrap\">\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\n<div id=\"post-1682\" class=\"standard post-1682 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<p>Architecture during the Hellenistic period focused on theatricality and drama; the period also saw increased popularity of the Corinthian order. Architecture in the Greek world during the Hellenistic period developed theatrical tendencies, as had Hellenistic sculpture. The conquests of Alexander the Great caused power to shift from the city-states of Greece to the ruling dynasties. Dynastic families patronized large complexes and dramatic urban plans within their cities. These urban plans often focused on the natural setting and were intended to enhance views and create dramatic civic, judicial, and market spaces that differed from the orthogonal plans of the houses that surrounded them.<\/p>\n<p>Architecture in the Hellenistic period is most commonly associated with the growing popularity of the Corinthian order. However, the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1711\">Doric<\/a> and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1712\">Ionic<\/a> orders underwent notable changes. Examples include the slender and unfluted Doric columns and the four-fronted capitals on Ionic columns, the latter of which helped to solve design problems concerning symmetry on the temple porticos.<\/p>\n<h3>Stoa<\/h3>\n<p>A stoa, or a covered walkway or portico, was used to bind agorae and other public spaces. Highlighting the edge of open areas with such decorative architecture created a theatrical effect for the public space and also provided citizens with a basic daily form of protection from the elements. Both the stoa and the agora were used by merchants, artists, religious festivals, judicial courts, and civic administrations.<\/p>\n<p>The Stoa of Attalos (c. 150 BCE) in Athens was built in the Agora, under the patronage of King Attalos II of Pergamon. This portico consists of a double colonnade. It was two stories, tall, and had a row of rooms on the ground floor. The exterior colonnade on the ground level was built in the Doric order, and the interior was Ionic. On the second level, Ionic columns lined the exterior, and columns with a simple, stylized capital lined the interior.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13378\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 521px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155742\/stoa-in-athens.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a recent photo of the restored Stoa of Attalos. This is a view of the ground-level marble colonnades in the Agora in Athens, Greece.\" width=\"521\" height=\"391\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The restored Stoa of Attalos:<\/strong> This is a view of the ground-level marble colonnades in the Agora in Athens, Greece.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Temple of Apollo at Didyma<\/h3>\n<p>Other examples of grand and monumental architecture can be found in Ionia, modern-day Turkey in Pergamon, and Didyma. The Temple of Apollo at Didyma was both a temple and an oracle site.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13381\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 523px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155745\/didyma.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma. Begun around 313 BCE, this was both a temple and an oracle site in Didyma, Turkey.\" width=\"523\" height=\"392\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Temple of Apollo:<\/strong> Begun around 313 BCE, this was both a temple and an oracle site in Didyma, Turkey.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The temple was designed by the architects Paionios of Ephesus and Daphnis of Miletus. Its construction began in 313 BCE but was never completed, although work continued until the second century CE. This temple\u2019s site is vast. The interior court was 71 feet wide by 175 feet long and contained a small shrine. The court was also dipteral in form, edged with a double row of 108 columns, each 65 feet tall, that surrounded the temple. The structure creates a series of imposing spaces, from the exterior colonnade to the oracle rooms, and the interior courtyard inside of which the shrine to Apollo stood. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof. The building is dramatically different from the perfected Classical plan of temples. Instead of focusing on symmetry and harmony, the building focuses on the experience of the viewer.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13380\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 370px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155748\/hypaethraltempel.png\" alt=\"This shows the ground plan and elevation of the Temple of Apollo. Construction began around 313 BCE, in Didyma, Turkey. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof.\" width=\"370\" height=\"370\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Plan and elevation of the Temple of Apollo:<\/strong> Construction began c. 313 BCE, in Didyma, Turkey. The building plan also played with theatricality and drama, forcing its visitors through a dark interior and then opening up into a bright and open courtyard that did not have a roof.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Corinthian Order<\/h3>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1719\">Corinthian<\/a> order is considered the third order of Classical architecture. The order\u2019s columns are slender and <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1676\">fluted<\/a> and sit atop a base. The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1154\">capital<\/a> consists of a double layer of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1204\">acanthus leaves<\/a> and stylized plant tendrils that curl up towards the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1200\">abacus<\/a> in the shape of a scroll or <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1202\">volute<\/a>. The decorative Corinthian order was not widely adopted in Greece, although it was popular in tholoi. It was, however, used substantially throughout the Roman period.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13379\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 520px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155750\/corinthian-capital-agora.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a recent photo of a corinthian capital at the Odeon of Agrippa, in the Agora at Athens, Greece.\" width=\"520\" height=\"424\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Corinthian capital:<\/strong> A Corinthian capital at the Odeon of Agrippa, c. 14 BCE, in the Agora in Athens, Greece.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The ruined Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (also known as the Olympieion) contains one of the best-known examples of the Corinthian column in Hellenistic architecture. Originally designed in the Doric order in the sixth century BCE, the temple was redesigned in the second century BCE in the Corinthian order on a colossal platform measuring 134.5\u00a0feet by 353.5 feet.<\/p>\n<p>It was to be flanked by a double <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1232\">colonnade<\/a> of eight columns across the front and back and twenty-one on the flanks, surrounding the cella. The design was eventually changed to have three rows of eight columns across the front and back of the temple and a double row of twenty on the flanks, for a total of 104 columns. The columns stand 55.5 feet high and 6.5 feet in diameter. In 164 BCE, the death of Antiochus IV (who had presented himself as the earthly embodiment of Zeus) brought the project to a halt, and the temple would remain incomplete.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33877\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 502px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/urcpbywirgfxljiiahvr.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Temple of Olympian Zeus. Note the corinthian colonnades and Pentelic marble on the ruins of the temple.\" width=\"502\" height=\"442\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Temple of Olympian Zeus:<\/strong> Note the Corinthian colonnades and Pentelic marble.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Pergamon<\/h2>\n<p>Pergamon rose as a power under the Attalids and provides examples of the drama and theatrics found in Hellenistic art and architecture. The ancient city of Pergamon, now modern-day Bergama in Turkey, was the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon following the death of Alexander the Great and was ruled under the Attalid dynasty. The Acropolis of Pergamon is a prime example of Hellenistic architecture and the convergence of nature and architectural design to create dramatic and theatrical sites.<\/p>\n<p>The acropolis was built into and on top of a steep hill that commands great views of the surrounding countryside. Both the upper and lower portions of the acropolis were home to many important structures of urban life, including gymnasiums, agorae, baths, libraries, a theatre, shrines, temples, and altars.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33878\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 514px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/kp1lnnvri2vandv7q8s7.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of a scale model of Pergamon as described in the caption.\" width=\"514\" height=\"299\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Scale model of Pergamon as it might have looked in antiquity:<\/strong> Center-left: Theatre of Pergamon. Center right: Altar of Zeus. Pergamon Museum, Berlin.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The theatre at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theatres in the ancient world. Like all Hellenic theatres, it was built into the hillside, which supported the structure and provided stadium seating that would have overlooked the ancient city and its surrounding countryside. The theatre is one example of the creation and use of dramatic and theatrical architecture.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33879\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 484px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/mvmr1hxsqs9ozpdubizg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the theater of Pergamon.\" width=\"484\" height=\"326\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Theatre of Pergamon:<\/strong> The theatre at Pergamon could seat 10,000 people and was one of the steepest theatres in the ancient world.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Altar of Zeus<\/h3>\n<p>Another element found at Pergamon is the great Altar of Zeus (now housed in Germany). The altar was commissioned in the first half of the second century BCE during the reign of King Eumenes II to commemorate his victory over the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1206\">Gauls<\/a>, who were migrating into Asia Minor.<\/p>\n<p>The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top. It faced east, was located near the theatre of Pergamon, and commanded an outstanding view of the region. The altar is known for its grand design and for its frieze depicting the Gigantomachy\u2014it wraps 370 feet around the base of the altar.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13391\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 552px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155754\/driss-pergamonlatar-rotate.jpeg\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of the Altar of Zeus.\" width=\"552\" height=\"495\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Plan of the Altar of Zeus:<\/strong> The altar is a U-shaped Ionic building built on a high platform with central steps leading to the top, c. 175 BCE, in Bergama, Turkey.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13393\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 647px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155757\/in-pergamonmuseum-altar-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Altar of Zeus. The structure is 35.64 metres wide and 33.4 metres deep; the front stairway alone is almost 20 metres wide. The base is decorated with a frieze in high relief showing the battle between the Giants and the Olympian gods known as the Gigantomachy.\" width=\"647\" height=\"197\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Altar of Zeus:<\/strong> Originally from Bergama, Turkey, the altar is now in Berlin, Germany.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Gigantomachy<\/h3>\n<p>The Gigantomachy depicts the Olympian gods fighting against their predecessors the Giants (Titans), the children of the goddess Gaia. The frieze is known for its incredibly high relief, in which the figures are barely restrained by the wall, and for its deep drilling of lines with details to create dramatic shadows.<\/p>\n<p>The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increase the liveliness and naturalism of the scene. The figures are rendered with high plasticity. The texture of their skin, drapery, and scales add another level of naturalism. Furthermore, as the frieze follows the stairs, the limbs of the figures begin to spill out of their frame and onto the stairs, physically breaking into the space of the viewer. The style and high drama of the scenes are often referred to as the Hellenistic Baroque for its exaggerated motion, emphasis on details, and the liveliness of the characters.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13394\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 583px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155800\/2c-okeanos-pergamonaltar-.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the relief of Nereus, Doris, a Giant, and Oceanus, the ocean gods gathered together.\" width=\"583\" height=\"437\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Nereus, Doris, a Giant, and Oceanus:<\/strong> Located on the north frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Bergama, Turkey, c. 175 BCE. The high relief and deep drilling of the figures also increase the liveliness and naturalism of the scene.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The most famous scene on the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1018\">frieze<\/a> depicts Athena fighting the giant Alkyoneus. She grabs his head and pulls it back while Gaia emerges from the ground to plead for her son\u2019s life and a winged Nike reaches over to crown Athena. Athena\u2019s drapery swirls around her with deep folds and her whole body is nearly removed from the frieze. The figures are depicted with the heightened emotion commonly found on Hellenistic statues. Alkyoneus\u2019s face strains in pain and Gaia\u2019s eyes, which are all that remain of her face, are full of terror and sorrow at the death of her son.<\/p>\n<p>The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape. Athena stretches out to grasps Alkoyneus\u2019s head, the two figures pull at each other in opposite directions. Meanwhile, the figure of Nike moves diagonally towards Athena, showing their convergence in a moment of victory. The diagonal line created by Gaia mimics the shape of her son, connecting the two figures through line and pathos. The scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13392\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 583px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155803\/nsammlung-pergamonaltar-13.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the frieze depicting Athena and Alkyoneos. Athena grabs the hair of the giant Alkyoneos as Nike flies to crown her.\" width=\"583\" height=\"437\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Athena and Alkyoneos:<\/strong> Located on the east frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Bargama, Turkey, c. 175 BCE. The entire composition is depicted in a chiastic shape, and the scene is filled with the tension and emotion that are key features in Hellenistic sculpture.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Dying Gauls<\/h3>\n<p>A group of statues depicting dying <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_770_1206\">Gauls<\/a>, the defeated enemies of the Attalids, were situated inside the Altar of Zeus. The original set of statues is believed to have been cast in bronze by the court sculptor Epigonus in 230\u2013220 BCE. Now only marble Roman copies of the figures remain.<\/p>\n<p>Like the figures on the frieze and other Hellenistic sculptures, the figures are depicted with lifelike details and a high level of naturalism. They are also depicted in the common motif of barbarians. The men are nude and wear Celtic torcs. Their hair is shaggy and dishevelled. The figures are positioned in dramatic compositions and are shown dying heroically, which turns them into worthy adversaries, increasing the perception of the power of the Attalid dynasty. All three figures in the group are depicted in a Hellenistic manner. To fully appreciate the statues, it is best to walk around them. Their pain, nobility, and death are evident from all angles.<\/p>\n<p>One Gaul is depicted lying down, supporting himself over his shield and a discarded trumpet. He furrows his brow as he looks downward at his bleeding chest wound as he prepares himself for death. His muscles are large and strong, signifying his strength as a warrior and implying the strength of the one who struck him down.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13395\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 582px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155807\/dying-gaul.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Dying Gaul. The white marble statue depicts a wounded, slumping male figure. A bleeding sword puncture is visible in his lower right chest.\" width=\"582\" height=\"473\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Dying Gaul:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Epigonos, \u00a0c. 230\u2013220 BCE, in Pergamon, Turkey.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Two other figures complete the group. One figure depicts a Gallic chief committing suicide after he has killed his own wife. Also known as the Ludovisi Gaul, this sculpture group displays another heroic and noble deed of the foes, for typically women and children of the defeated would be murdered to avoid them from being captured and sold as slaves by the victors. The chief holds his fallen wife by the arm as he plunges his sword into his chest, where blood is already exiting the wound.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33880\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 337px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/fvkszmyitrewm7cw9ces.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Ludovisi Gaul statue depicting a man in the act of plunging a sword into his breast, looking backwards defiantly while he supports the dying figure of a woman with his left arm.\" width=\"337\" height=\"511\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Dying Gaul:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Epigonos, \u00a0c. 230\u2013220 BCE, in Pergamon, Turkey.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Sculpture in the Hellenistic Period<\/h2>\n<p>A key component of Hellenistic sculpture is the expression of a sculpture\u2019s face and body to elicit an emotional response from the viewer. Hellenistic sculpture continues the trend of increasing naturalism seen in the stylistic development of Greek art. During this time, the rules of Classical art were pushed and abandoned in favour of new themes, genres, drama, and pathos that were never explored by previous Greek artists. Furthermore, the Greek artists added a new level of naturalism to their figures by adding elasticity to their form and expressions, both facial and physical. These figures interact with their audience in a new theatrical manner by eliciting an emotional reaction from their view\u2014this is known as pathos.<\/p>\n<h3>Nike of Samothrace<\/h3>\n<p>One of the most iconic statues of the period, the Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), commemorates a naval victory. This Parian marble statue depicts Nike, now armless and headless, alighting onto the prow of the ship. The prow is visible beneath her feet, and the scene is filled with theatricality and naturalism as the statue reacts to her surroundings.<\/p>\n<p>Nike\u2019s feet, legs, and body thrust forward in contradiction to her drapery and wings that stream backwards. Her clothing whips around her from the wind and her wings lift upwards. This depiction provides the impression that she has just landed and that this is the precise moment that she is settling onto the ship\u2019s prow. In addition to the sculpting, the figure was most likely set within a fountain, creating a theatrical setting where both the imagery and the auditory effect of the fountain would create a striking image of action and triumph.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13389\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 569px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155811\/f-samothrake-louvre-ma2369.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of Nike of Samothrace, also known as the Winged Victory (circa 190 BCE). This marble statue, in Samothrace, Greece, commemorates a naval victory.\" width=\"569\" height=\"861\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Nike of Samothrace:<\/strong> Also known as the Winged Victory (c. 190 BCE), this marble statue, in Samothrace, Greece, commemorates a naval victory.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Venus de Milo<\/h3>\n<p>Also known as the Aphrodite of Melos (c. 130\u2013100 BCE), this sculpture by Alexandros of Antioch, is another well-known icon of the Hellenistic period. Today the goddess\u2019s arms are missing. It has been suggested that one arm clutched at her slipping drapery while the other arm held out an apple, an allusion to the Judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen.<\/p>\n<p>Originally, like all Greek sculptures, the statue would have been painted and adorned with metal jewelry, which is evident from the attachment holes. This image is in some ways similar to Praxitiles\u2019 Late Classical sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos (fourth century BCE), but it is considered to be more erotic than its earlier counterpart. For instance, while she is covered below the waist, Aphrodite makes little attempt to cover herself. She appears to be teasing and ignoring her viewer, instead of accosting him and making eye contact.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13388\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 556px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155814\/aphrodite-of-milos.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo Venus de Milo, and it is believed to depict Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love and beauty. The statue depicts a woman's face in profile view and a body in frontal view. She is nude from the waist up. She has idealized abdominal muscles, and her lower body is clothed in draped fabric. She is missing both her arms.\" width=\"556\" height=\"742\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Venus de Milo:<\/strong> This marble statue, in Melos, Greece, was sculpted by Alexandros of Antioch, c. 130\u2013100 BCE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Altered States<\/h3>\n<p>While the Nike of Samothrace exudes a sense of drama and the Venus de Milo a new level of feminine sexuality, other Greek sculptors explored new states of being. Instead of reproducing images of the ideal Greek male or female, as was favoured during the Classical period, sculptors began to depict images of the old, tired, sleeping, and drunk\u2014none of which are ideal representations of a man or woman.<\/p>\n<h3>The Barberini Faun<\/h3>\n<p>The Barberini Faun, also known as the Sleeping Satyr (c. 220 BCE), depicts an effeminate figure, most likely a satyr, drunk and passed out on a rock. His body splays across the rock face without regard to modesty. He appears to have fallen to sleep in the midst of drunken revelry and he sleeps restlessly, his brow is knotted, face worried, and his limbs are tense and stiff. Unlike earlier depicts of nude men, but in a similar manner to the Venus de Milo, the Barberini Faun seems to exude sexuality.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13387\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 482px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155817\/t-glyptothek-munich-218-n1.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue the Barberini Faun. It depicts a nude male, seated with his legs spread and his arm behind his head.\" width=\"482\" height=\"780\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Barberini Faun:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy, in Rome, Italy, of the Greek bronze original, c. 220 BCE. Italy.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Drunken Old Woman<\/h3>\n<p>Images of drunkenness were also created of women, which can be seen in a statue attributed to the Hellenistic artist Myron of a drunken beggar woman. This woman sits on the floor with her arms and legs wrapped around a large jug and a hand gripping the jug\u2019s neck. Grapevines decorating the top of the jug make it clear that it holds wine. The woman\u2019s face, instead of being expressionless, is turned upward and she appears to be calling out, possibly to passersby. Not only is she intoxicated, but she is old: deep wrinkles line her face, her eyes are sunken, and her bones stick out through her skin.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13385\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 400px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155820\/bebada2.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Drunken Old Woman. The sculpture depicts an old woman squatting on the ground holding a container in her lap.\" width=\"400\" height=\"730\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Drunken Old Woman:<\/strong> This is a Roman marble copy of the Greek bronze original by Myron, c. 200\u2013180 BCE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Seated Boxer<\/h3>\n<p>Another image of the old and weary is a bronze statue of a seated boxer. While the image of an athlete is a common theme in Greek art, this bronze presents a Hellenistic twist. He is old and tired, much like the Late Classical image of a Weary Herakles. However, unlike Herakles, the boxer is depicted as beaten and exhausted from his pursuit. His face is swollen, lip spilt, and ears cauliflowered. This is not an image of a heroic, young athlete but rather an old, defeated man many years past his prime.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13383\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 513px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155823\/rmae-boxer-massimo-inv1055.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the bronze statue, Seated Boxer. That statue depicts a sitting nude boxer at rest, still wearing his caestus, a type of leather hand-wrap. He appears to be looking up and behind him.\" width=\"513\" height=\"831\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Seated Boxer:<\/strong> This bronze statue, c. 100\u201350 BCE, is in Rome, Italy.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Portraiture<\/h3>\n<p>Individual portraits, instead of idealization, also became popular during the Hellenistic period. A portrait of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos (280 BCE) is not an idealization of the Athenian statesman and orator. Instead, the statue takes notes of Demosthenes\u2019s characteristic features, including his overbite, furrowed brow, stooped shoulders, and old, loose skin. Even portrait busts, often copied from Polyeuktos\u2019 famed statue, depict the weariness and sorrow of a man despairing the conquest of Philip II and the end of Athenian democracy.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/13382\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 553px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155826\/thenes-chiaramonti-inv1555.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the portrait bust of Demosthenes, a bearded man with wavy hair and a receded hairline. His forehead is wrinkled and his eyes are closed.\" width=\"553\" height=\"801\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Demosthenes:<\/strong> This is a Roman copy of the Greek, bronze, original portrait bust by Polyeuktos.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Roman Patronage<\/h3>\n<p>The Greek peninsula fell to Roman power in 146 BCE. Greece was a key province of the Roman Empire, and Roman interest in Greek culture helped to circulate Greek art around the empire, especially in Italy, during the Hellenistic period and into the Imperial period of Roman hegemony.<\/p>\n<p>Greek sculptors were in high demand throughout the remaining territories of Alexander\u2019s empire and then throughout the Roman Empire. Famous Greek statues were copied and replicated for wealthy Roman patricians and Greek artists were commissioned for large-scale sculptures in the Hellenistic style. Originally cast in bronze, many Greek sculptures that we have today survive only as marble Roman copies. Some of the most famous colossal marble groups were sculpted in the Hellenistic style for wealthy Roman patrons and for the imperial court. Despite their Roman audience, these were purposely created in the Greek style and continued to display the drama, tension, and pathos of Hellenistic art.<\/p>\n<h3>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons<\/h3>\n<p>Laoco\u00f6n was a Trojan priest of Poseidon who warned the Trojans, \u201cBeware of Greeks bearing gifts,\u201d when the Greeks left a large wooden horse at the gates of Troy. Athena or Poseidon (depending on the story\u2019s version), upset by his vain warning to his people, sent two sea serpents to torture and kill the priest and his two sons. Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons, a Hellenistic marble sculpture group (attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes) were created in the early first century CE to depict this scene from Virgil\u2019s epic, The Aeneid.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33883\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 538px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/v3cv5rpptdsjvhmtexuo.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons. This marble statue is attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes.\" width=\"538\" height=\"517\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons: <\/strong>This marble statue is attributed by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder to the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus from the island of Rhodes.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Similar to other examples of Hellenistic sculpture, Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons depicts a chiastic scene filled with drama, tension, and pathos. The figures writhe as they are caught in the coils of the serpents. The faces of the three men are filled with agony and toil, which is reflected in the tension and strain of their muscles. Laoco\u00f6n stretches out in a long diagonal from his right arm to his left as he attempts to free himself. His sons are also entangled by the serpents, and their faces react to their doom with confusion and despair. The carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling, seen in Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s hair and beard, are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33884\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 539px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/rlzbjqlttygnotkfspjz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons that focuses on Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s face. It shows the carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling that are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.\" width=\"539\" height=\"485\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons:<\/strong> This detail of Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s face shows the carving and detail, the attention to the musculature of the body, and the deep drilling that are all characteristic elements of the Hellenistic style.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Farnese Bull<\/h3>\n<p>The Farnese Bull (c. 200\u2013180 BCE), named for the patrician Roman family who owned the statue in the Italian Renaissance, is believed to have been created for the collection of Asinius Pollio, a Roman patrician. Pliny the Elder attributes the statue to the artists and brothers Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.<\/p>\n<p>The colossal marble statue, carved from a single block of marble, depicts the myth of Dirce, the wife of the King of Thebes, who was tied to a bull by the sons of Antiope to punish her for mistreating their mother. The composition is large and dramatic and demands the viewer to encircle it in order to view and appreciate the narrative and pathos from all angles. The various angles reveal different expressions, from the terror of Dirce, to the determination of Antiope\u2019s sons, to the savagery of the bull.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33885\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 567px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/5gdolcfet9eisnh0cdgq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Farnese Bull. This huge marble statue, circa 200 to 180 BCE, was sculpted by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.\" width=\"567\" height=\"580\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Farnese Bull:<\/strong> This marble statue, c. 200\u2013180 BCE, was sculpted by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, Rhodes.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Hellenistic architecture, in a manner similar to Hellenistic sculpture, focuses on theatricality, drama, and the experience of the viewer. Public spaces and temples were created with the people in mind, and so were built on a new, monumental scale.<\/li>\n<li>Stoas are colonnaded porticos used to define public space and protect patrons from the elements. Stoas are often found around a city\u2019s agora, and turn the city\u2019s central place for civic, administrative, and market elements into a grand space.<\/li>\n<li>The Corinthian order, developed during the Classical period, witnessed increased popularity during the Hellenistic period. The columnar style of the order is similar in many ways to the Ionic order except for the column\u2019s capital, which is vegetal and lush. A double layer of acanthus leaves lines the basket from which stylized tendrils and volutes emerge.<\/li>\n<li>Pergamon was the capital city of the Kingdom of Pergamon, which was ruled by the Attalids in the centuries following the death of Alexander the Great.<\/li>\n<li>The Acropolis of Pergamon is famous for its monumental architecture. Most of the buildings command a great view of the surrounding countryside and together create a dramatic public space.<\/li>\n<li>The Altar of Zeus at Pergamon was a monumental u-shaped Ionic building that stood on a high platform and was accessed by a wide set of stairs. Besides its dramatic architecture, the altar is known for its Gigantomachy frieze and sculptures of defeated Gauls.<\/li>\n<li>Hellenistic sculpture takes the naturalism of the body\u2019s form and expression to a level of hyper-realism where the expression of the sculpture\u2019s face and body elicit an emotional response.<\/li>\n<li>Drama and pathos are new factors in Hellenistic sculpture. The style of the sculpting is no longer idealized. Rather, they are often exaggerated, and details are emphasized to add a new, heightened level of motion and pathos.<\/li>\n<li>New compositions and states of mind are explored in Hellenistic sculptures including old age, drunkenness, sleep, agony, and despair.<\/li>\n<li>Portraiture became popular in this period. The subjects are depicted with a sense of naturalism that displays their imperfections.<\/li>\n<li>Hellenistic sculpture was in especially high demand after the Greek peninsula fell to the Romans in 146 BCE. Notable sculptures produced for Roman patrons include Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons and the Farnese Bull.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adapted from\u00a0<strong>&#8220;Boundless Art History&#8221;<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-hellenistic-period\/\u00a0<strong>License: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_770_1711\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1711\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The earliest of the three Classical orders of architecture. Characterized by plain, unadorned column capitals and a column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. The columns are fluted and are of sturdy, if not stocky, proportions.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1712\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1712\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The second architectural order. Notable for its graceful proportions, and fluted columns decorated with volutes.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1719\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1719\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Both the latest and the most elaborate of the Classical orders of architecture. A defining element is the elaborate, carved capital, decorated with Acanthus leaves.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1676\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1676\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Having semi-cylindrical vertical grooves, either for decoration or to trim weight.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1154\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1154\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The topmost part of a column.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1204\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1204\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An ornament that resembles the foliage or leaves of Acanthus Spinosus that are used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1200\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1200\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A flat slab that forms the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1202\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1202\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The spiral curve on an Ionic capital.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1232\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1232\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A series of columns at regular intervals.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1206\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1206\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An ancient person from the region that roughly corresponds to modern France and Belgium.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_770_1018\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_770_1018\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Any sculptured or richly ornamented band on a building.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":961,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-770","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":758,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/770","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/961"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/770\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2260,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/770\/revisions\/2260"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/758"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/770\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=770"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=770"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=770"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=770"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}