{"id":788,"date":"2020-09-23T12:28:08","date_gmt":"2020-09-23T16:28:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=788"},"modified":"2021-01-30T17:58:13","modified_gmt":"2021-01-30T22:58:13","slug":"middle-empire","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/chapter\/middle-empire\/","title":{"raw":"Middle Empire Art","rendered":"Middle Empire Art"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"nav-container\">\r\n<div class=\"skip-to-content\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\r\n<div id=\"wrap\">\r\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\r\n<div id=\"post-1750\" class=\"standard post-1750 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n\r\nThe emperors Trajan and Hadrian were the two most prolific emperors who constructed buildings during the Nervan-Antonine dynasty.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key Middle Empire works<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define critical terms related to Middle Empire art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss Trajan\u2019s Forum, Trajan\u2019s Markets, Hadrian\u2019s Pantheon, and Hadrian\u2019s Villa at Tivoli<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrast male and female imperial portraiture during this time period from that of the Flavian dynasty<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius and what they emphasized<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h3>Public Building Programs<\/h3>\r\nPublic building programs were prevalent under the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine dynasty. During this period of peace, stability, and an expansion of the empire\u2019s borders, many of the emperors sought to cast themselves in the image of the first imperial builder, Augustus. The projects these emperors conducted around the empire included the building and restoration of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. In Rome, these imperial building projects strengthened the image of the emperor and directly addressed the needs of the citizens of the city.\r\n<h3>Trajan\u2019s Forum<\/h3>\r\nTrajan\u2019s Forum was the last of the imperial fora to be built in the city. The forum\u2019s main entrance was accessed from the south, near to the Forum of Augustus as well as the Forum of Caesar (which Trajan also renovated). The Forum of Augustus might have been the model for the Forum of Trajan, even though the latter was much larger. Both fora were rectangular in shape with a temple at one end. Both appear to have a set of exedra on either side.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9972\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"639\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160037\/forum-traianii-map.png\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of the Forum of Trajan and Trajan's Markets. The Forum consisted of a vast portico-lined piazza wide exedrae on two sides. On either side of the piazza are markets.\" width=\"639\" height=\"600\" \/> <em><strong>Plan of the Forum of Trajan and Trajan\u2019s Markets:<\/strong> Trajan built the forum and markets around the same time from 106 to 113 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nTrajan built his forum with the spoils from his conquest of Dacia. The visual elements within the forum speak of his military prowess and Rome\u2019s victory. A triumphal arch mounted with an image of the emperor in a six-horse chariot greeted patrons at the southern entrance.\r\n\r\nIn the center of the large courtyard stood an equestrian statue of Trajan, and additional bronze statues of him in a quadriga lined the roof of the Basilica Ulpia, which transected the forum in the northern end. This large civic building served as a meeting place for the commerce and law courts. It was lavishly furnished with marble floors, facades, and the hall was filled with tall marble columns.\r\n\r\nThe Basilica Ulpia also separated the arcaded courtyard from two libraries (one for Greek texts, the other for Latin), the Column of Trajan, and a temple dedicated to the Divine Trajan.\r\n<h3>Trajan\u2019s Markets<\/h3>\r\nTrajan\u2019s markets were an additional public building that the emperor built at the same time as his forum. The markets were built on top of and into the Quirinal Hill. They consisted of a series of multi-levelled halls lined with rooms for shops, administrative offices, or apartments. The markets follow the shape of Trajan\u2019s forum.\r\n\r\nA portion of them are shaped into a large [pb_glossary id=\"1221\"]exedra[\/pb_glossary], framing one of the exedra of the forum. Like Trajan\u2019s forum, the markets were elaborately decorated with marble floors and revetment, as well as decorative columns to frame the doorways.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9971\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"666\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160041\/trajansmarket.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows the ruins of the Trajan's Markets.\" width=\"666\" height=\"191\" \/> <em><strong>Trajan\u2019s Markets:<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s Markets as they stand today.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Apollodorus of Damascus<\/h3>\r\nMany of Trajan\u2019s architectural achievements were designed by his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus. Apollodorus was a Greek engineer from Damascus, Syria. He designed Trajan\u2019s forums and markets, the Arch of Trajan at Benevento, and an important bridge across the Danube during the campaigns against the Dacians.\r\n\r\nUnfortunately for Apollodorus, Trajan\u2019s heir Hadrian also took an interest in architecture. According to Roman biographers, Apollodorus did not appreciate Hadrian\u2019s interests or architectural drawings and often discredited them. Upon the succession of the new emperor, Apollodorus was dismissed from court.\r\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Pantheon<\/h3>\r\nHadrian\u2019s most famous contribution to the city of Rome was his rebuilding of the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, that was first built by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. Agrippa\u2019s Pantheon burned down in the 80s CE, was rebuilt by Domitian, and burned down again in 110 CE.\r\n\r\nHadrian\u2019s Pantheon still remains standing today, a great testament of Roman engineering and ingenuity. The Pantheon was consecrated as a church during the medieval period and was later used as a burial site.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9974\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"481\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160043\/ante-c3-b3n-de-roma-alzado.jpeg\" alt=\"This is an elevation drawing of the Pantheon. Elevation views show materials, texture profiles of the building, and heights of and between elements like windows and detailing.\" width=\"481\" height=\"394\" \/> <em><strong>Elevation drawing of the Pantheon:<\/strong> The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent concrete, unreinforced dome.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9973\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"599\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160048\/rom-pantheon-mit-obelisk.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows an exterior view of the Pantheon as it stands today. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment.\" width=\"599\" height=\"398\" \/> <em><strong>Pantheon:<\/strong> Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118\u2013125 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe most unusual aspect of the Pantheon is its magnificent coffered dome, which was originally gilded in bronze. The concrete dome, which provided inspiration to numerous Renaissance and Neoclassical architects, spans over 142 feet and remains the largest unreinforced dome today. It stands due to a series of relieving arches and because the supportive base of the building is nearly twenty feet thick.\r\n\r\nThe cylindrical drum on which the dome rests consists of hollowed-out brick filled with concrete for extra reinforcement. At the center of the dome is a large oculus that lets in light, fresh air, and even rain. Both the oculus and the coffered ceiling lighten the weight of the dome, allowing it to stand without additional supports.\r\n\r\nThe Pantheon takes its shape from Greek circular temples, however, it is faced by a Roman rectangular portico and a triangular pediment supported by monolithic granite columns imported from Egypt. The portico, which originally included a flight of stairs to a podium, acts as a visual trick, preparing viewers to enter a typical rectangular temple when they would instead be walking into a circular one.\r\n\r\nA dedicatory inscription is carved in the entablature under the pediment. The inscription reads as the original inscription would have read when the Pantheon was first built by Agrippa. Hadrian\u2019s decision to use the original inscription links him to the original imperial builders of Rome.\r\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Villa at Tivoli<\/h3>\r\nHadrian travelled extensively during his reign and was frequently exposed to a variety of local architectural styles. His villa at Tivoli (built during the second and third decades of the second century CE) reflects the influence of styles found in locations such as Greece and Egypt.\r\n\r\nAmong the designs he borrowed are caryatids and statues beside them that depict the Egyptian dwarf and fertility god Bes. A Greek Maritime Theater exhibits classical Ionic style, whereas the domes of the main buildings, as well as the Corinthian arches of the Canopus (a pool)\u00a0and Serapeum (an artificial grotto), clearly show the influence of Roman architecture.\r\n\r\nOne structure in the villa is the so-called Maritime Theater. It consists of a round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars. Inside the portico was a ring-shaped pool with a central island. Inside the outer wall and surrounding the moat are a ring of unfluted Ionic columns.\r\n\r\nThe Maritime Theater includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, a washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain. During ancient times, the island was connected to the portico by two wooden drawbridges. On the island sits a small Roman house complete with an atrium, a library, a triclinium, and small baths. The area was probably used by the emperor as a retreat from the busy life at the court.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33981\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"558\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/aeiipks9qtmhgzahouvb.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the current-day ruins of the Maritime Theater at Hadrian's villa. It is an island enclosure, displaying classical ionic style. The photo shows the remains of a circular shaped structure and ionic columns surrounded by a circular pool.\" width=\"558\" height=\"279\" \/> <em><strong>Maritime Theater at Hadrian\u2019s Villa:<\/strong> The theatre includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, a washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe villa utilizes numerous architectural styles and innovations. The domes of the steam baths have circular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is reminiscent of the Pantheon. The area has a network of underground tunnels. The tunnels were mostly used to transport servants and goods from one area to another. In total, the villa\u2019s structures demonstrate the emperor\u2019s innovative spirit in the field of architecture.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33982\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"615\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/9xbvetwqaqx9h0pecqbc.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows the ruins of the domes that once housed the Great Baths at Hadrian's villa.\" width=\"615\" height=\"146\" \/> <em><strong>Great Baths at Hadrian\u2019s Villa:<\/strong> The domes of the steam baths have circular holes at the apex to allow steam to escape.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Imperial Sculpture under the Nervan-Antonines<\/h2>\r\nThe imperial portraiture of men and women in the early- to mid-second century reflects an increasing austerity and interest in the Greeks. Imperial portraiture under the Flavians first depicted the emperors as mature, older men. Nerva, who only reigned for two years before his natural death in 98 CE, was declared emperor by the Senate following Domitian\u2019s assassination. Since he had no natural sons of his own, Nerva adopted a young and popular general, Trajan, to be his successor.\r\n\r\nNerva\u2019s portraiture followed the style of imperial portraiture during the Flavian era. The few portraits that remain from the two years of his rule depict a man with a receding hairline and a small mouth. The portraiture of Nerva and later of Trajan display an increasingly militaristic look.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9945\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"525\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160051\/nerva-tivoli-massimo.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Nerva. It shows his hair pushed back from his forehead. He has a sharp, narrow nose.\" width=\"525\" height=\"796\" \/> <em><strong>Nerva:<\/strong> The portraiture of Nerva and later of Trajan display an increasing militaristic look.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nNerva\u2019s successor and adopted son Trajan was a much more successful emperor who was well-liked by both the Senate and the people of Rome. He reigned for nearly twenty years (98\u2013117 CE), and expanded the empire\u2019s borders while implementing extensive public building and social welfare programs. Trajan\u2019s portraits depict him as ageing, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, those of Augustus and Alexander the Great.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9947\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"552\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160055\/anus-glyptothek-munich-336.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Trajan. He has a full head of hair with bangs that stop above his eyebrows, triangular nose, and thin straight lips.\" width=\"552\" height=\"794\" \/> <em><strong>Trajan:<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s portraits depict him as ageing, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, those of Augustus and Alexander the Great.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nHadrian, Trajan\u2019s adopted son and heir, peacefully became emperor in 117 CE. He was a great lover of Greek culture and wore a closely trimmed beard in the style of Classical Greek statesmen, such as the Athenian Pericles. Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him also wore a beard. Prior to Hadrian, nearly all Roman men were clean-shaven.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9946\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"528\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160057\/ian-musei-capitolini-mc817.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Hadrian. He has curly hair and a beard.\" width=\"528\" height=\"660\" \/> <em><strong>Hadrian:<\/strong> Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him also wore a beard.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAntoninus Pius, Hadrian\u2019s adopted heir and successor, mimics his predecessor\u2019s appearance in his official portraits\u2014thick curly hair and a curly, closely-trimmed beard. By having his own portraits copy those of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between himself and his predecessor.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34004\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"395\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ependbgq2zdjisuugaqz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Antoninus Pius. He has a hairstyle and beard that resemble his predecessor Hadrian.\" width=\"395\" height=\"395\" \/> <em><strong>Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> By having his own portraits copy those of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between himself and his predecessor.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAntonius Pius\u2019s adoptive sons Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius are also identified by the beards they wore. Both men are depicted with heads of thick, curly hair and long, curly beards. Unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek statesmen, this style was more akin to the preferred style of the Greek philosophers. Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher. This style matched his personality and interests.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9943\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"553\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160101\/aurelius-glyptothek-munich.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Marcus Aurelius. He has curly hair and long, curly beard.\" width=\"553\" height=\"865\" \/> <em><strong>Marcus Aurelius:<\/strong> Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher. He wore his beard long and curly, like the Greek philosophers.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34005\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"394\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/maqeziesqswm8ioeyo3o.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Lucius Verus, the adopted brother of Marcus Aurelius. He, too, has curly hair and a long, curly beard.\" width=\"394\" height=\"456\" \/> <em><strong>Lucius Verus:<\/strong> The brother of Marcus Aurelius also wore his beard long and curly, like the Greek philosophers, unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek statesmen.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nUnlike the rest of the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine line, Marcus Aurelius fathered a son who became his heir. Commodus\u2019s portrait style followed that of his father and of preceding emperors. Commodus was egotistical and even had the head of the Colossus of Nero (now an image of the god Sol) recast in his own likeness.\r\n\r\nCommodus also believed he was the reincarnation of Hercules and claimed power from Hercules\u2019s father, Jupiter. He even commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules. These portraits show him with the now-traditional imperial style of thick, curly hair and a curly beard. Hercules\u2019s lion skin is draped over his head and around his shoulders and he often carries a club and sometimes the apples of the Hesperides.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9944\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"620\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160103\/us-musei-capitolini-mc1120.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a statue of Commodus as Hercules. Here, the Roman Emperor has taken on the guise of the mythological hero, Hercules. He has been given the attributes of the hero: a lion skin placed over his head, a club placed in his right hand, and the golden apples of Hesperides in his left.\" width=\"620\" height=\"945\" \/> <em><strong>Commodus as Hercules:<\/strong> Commodus believed he was the reincarnation of Hercules and claimed power from Hercules\u2019s father, Jupiter. He even commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Imperial Female Portraiture<\/h3>\r\nThe women of imperial families set the standards of fashion and beauty during the reigns of their husbands or other male family members. These women also established the hairstyles of the period, which are so distinctive that busts and statues are easily dated to specific decades in accordance with the hairstyle of the woman depicted.\r\n\r\nDuring the Nervan-Antonine period, the portraits of imperial women and their hairstyles kept some Flavian flavour but were simpler than they had been. The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head.\r\n\r\nTrajan\u2019s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia established a new style that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style. Their hairstyles still involved a vertical element, but the curls were simplified on the crown of the head. Matidia\u2019s natural hair was gathered above the nape of the neck, while Pompeia Plotina wore a braid at the back of her head.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34006\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"465\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ashqwrbqgssbsn4ygvtg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows two coins with images of Pompeia Plotina. The profile view of Pompeia Plotina shows the hairstyle she established.\" width=\"465\" height=\"212\" \/> <em><strong>Pompeia Plotina:<\/strong> This profile view of Pompeia Plotina shows the long braid worn behind the crown-like pile of hair in the front.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10073\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"574\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160107\/matidie-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Matidia. It shows the hairstyle she established, a stack of braids resembling a crown.\" width=\"574\" height=\"784\" \/> <em><strong>Matidia:<\/strong> Matidia established a new hairstyle that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10072\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"465\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160110\/matronalivia2.jpeg\" alt=\"This is photo of a bust of a Flavian woman. It shows a fashionable Flavian hairstyle, a stack a tight curls arranged at the crown.\" width=\"465\" height=\"518\" \/> <em><strong>Bust of a Flavian woman:<\/strong> The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nJust as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hairstyle, helping to promote Hadrian\u2019s Panhellenic agenda. Sabina is depicted with simplified facial features, and her style is comparable to that worn by Praxitiles\u2019s sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos. Her hair is held back by a band and carefully woven around the back of the head. A similar style was promoted by Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10069\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"308\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160114\/ustina-minor-louvre-ma1144.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Faustina the Younger, depicting hair parted in the middle and carefully crimped close to the head.\" width=\"308\" height=\"420\" \/> <em><strong>Faustina the Younger:<\/strong> Greek hairstyles were promoted by Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted here with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10070\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"545\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160117\/ia-sabina-28m.-prado-29-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Vibia Sabina wearing her hair in a braided updo, a Greek hairstyle.\" width=\"545\" height=\"735\" \/> <em><strong>Vibia Sabina:<\/strong> Just as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hairstyle, helping to promote Hadrian\u2019s Panhellenic agenda.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Victory Columns under the Nervan-Antonines<\/h2>\r\nThe monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius emphasize their military achievements, divinity, and public works.\r\n<h3>Imperial Memorial<\/h3>\r\nTrajan was born in Spain and rose to prominence in the Roman army during the reign of Domitian. He was a popular general who was adopted by Emperor Nerva as his son and heir after Nerva realized he needed to choose a successor who was liked by the people.\r\n\r\nDuring Trajan\u2019s reign of nearly twenty years, from 98 CE to 117 CE, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial range. Trajan established large building programs both in Rome and throughout the empire.\r\n<h3>Column of Trajan<\/h3>\r\nTrajan and his architect Apollodorus of Damascus designed and built a large forum complex in the center of Rome. Standing between the libraries of the Forum of Trajan is a 128-foot tall victory column, known as the Column of Trajan. It stands on top of a large pedestal carved with a relief of the spoils of war.\r\n\r\nThe pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan\u2019s ashes upon his death and deification. He is the first emperor to be buried inside the pomerium, the religious boundary around the city of Rome. A 625-foot frieze that depicts Trajan\u2019s two military campaigns against the Dacians is sculpted in a spiral relief that wraps around the column, from its bottom to its top.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34017\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"238\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/dfnhmikuqsqsgbcgsrz1.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Column of Trajan. The structure is about 35 meters tall, including the pedestal. The shaft is a colossal Carrara marble drums decorated in reliefs that depict military battles. It is topped with a statue of Trajan.\" width=\"238\" height=\"1293\" \/> <em><strong>The column of Trajan:<\/strong> The pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan\u2019s ashes upon his death and deification. Located in Rome, Italy, c. 112 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial;font-style: normal\">The frieze depicts over 150 episodes with more than 2,500 figures. The scenes show the Roman army preparing for war, including scenes of moving the army, building fortifications, Emperor Trajan addressing the troops, battles, and the eventual surrender by the Dacians.<\/span>\r\n\r\nOnly one-quarter of the narration depicts battles, while the remaining panels depict scenes of preparation and other activities. The heavy emphasis on preparation, instead of battle, emphasizes the Romans\u2019 organization and the power behind the army.\r\n\r\nThe visual narration is depicted in low relief (bas relief) and relies little on naturalistic detail, preferring to show some scenes in multiple perspectives and with figures on different ground lines. Important characters, such as Trajan, reappear throughout the frieze and are easily identified.\r\n\r\nTrajan himself appears 59 times, leading his troops as the head of the army and the empire. With the exception of the appearance of a few Victory figures and a river god, the Romans and Trajan are shown conquering the Dacians under their own power, through their own superiority over their enemy, without the help of divine intervention.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9965\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"593\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160119\/relief-kolumna-trajana.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of five registers or bands from the Column of Trajan. Each band portrays scenes from Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians.\" width=\"593\" height=\"791\" \/> <em><strong>Detail from the Column of Trajan:<\/strong> This detail shows five registers or bands from the Column of Trajan.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nTrajan\u2019s victory column was originally topped by an eagle and later with a statue of Trajan. The statue of Trajan eventually disappeared and was replaced in the sixteenth\u00a0century by a bronze statue of St. Peter.\r\n\r\nScholars have recently called the legibility of the figures into question. Because of the column\u2019s location, nestled between the libraries and the basilica of the Trajan\u2019s Forum, the scenes, which are carved in low relief, are small and hard to read. It is uncertain how much of the column\u2019s relief Romans would have been able to see. There is some speculation about whether knowledge of the idea of the narrative was more important than being physically able to read the narrative.\r\n<h3>The Column of Antoninus Pius<\/h3>\r\nAntoninus Pius (r. 138\u2013161 CE), the first of the Antonine emperors, was the adopted son of Hadrian. His heirs, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. had a column erected to him on the Campus Martius, the base of which survives today.\r\n\r\nOn two of its sides is an identical scene of a military decision depicting cavalry men parading around soldiers, two of whom hold standards. The relief carvings are high enough to protrude from the sides and be visible when viewing the non-decursio side of the pedestal. It depicts each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a bird\u2019s eye view.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34001\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"611\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/8pyktflmscyyfsece8xz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius. It shows the decursio scene in which members of the cavalry (men on horses) circle the standing figures, two carrying military standards and the rest fully armored.\" width=\"611\" height=\"489\" \/> <em><strong>The pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> This side shows the decursio scene. The relief carvings depict each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a bird\u2019s eye view.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOn one of the other two sides is a dedicatory inscription. On the opposite panel is a scene of the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. The scene depicts a large winged figure named Aion (Eternity) carrying the couple, surrounded by two eagles, to heaven.\r\n\r\nTwo figures look on from the ground. One is a personification of the Campus Martius, lounging on the ground with an arm around Augustus\u2019 sundial obelisk, the location where the ritual of deification occurred. The other is a personification of Rome, who appears as a woman wearing armour. She salutes the emperor and empress during their apotheosis while leaning on a shield depicting the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34002\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"605\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/lpyhve9issu5mcnozm6f.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius. It shows the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, in which a winged genius carries Antoninus and his wife Faustina to Heaven. The Emperor holds a sceptre crowned with an eagle, whilst eagles also fly upwards with them.\" width=\"605\" height=\"454\" \/> <em><strong>The pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> The apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, c. 61 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Column of Marcus Aurelius<\/h3>\r\nA victory column was also erected for Marcus Aurelius (r. 161\u2013180 CE). This column is modelled on Trajan\u2019s column and was originally erected on the Campus Martius between the Temple of Divine Hadrian and the Temple of Divine Marcus Aurelius. A relief frieze encircles the column and depicts Marcus Aurelius\u2019s military campaigns at the end of his life in Germania.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34003\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"596\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/vj6bypxt3ab3kj38iiwx.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Column of Marcus Aurelius the five bands in the spiral picture relief tell the story of Marcus Aurelius\u2019 Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him from 166 to his death.\" width=\"596\" height=\"550\" \/> <em><strong>The column of Marcus Aurelius:<\/strong> A detail of five bands from the column, circa 193 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDespite the similar military scenes, the artistic style of the Column of Marcus Aurelius differs greatly from the Column of Trajan. The figures in this column are stockier and their proportions are distorted. The extra-large heads and deep relief carving were utilized so that the figures were easier to see from the ground than those on Trajan\u2019s column.\r\n\r\nThe military strength of the empire is emphasized more so than on the Column of Trajan, where the majority of the scenes depict the preparation for battle, instead of the battles themselves. The new style, high relief, and military emphasis demonstrate the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Architecture under Hadrian<\/h2>\r\nHadrian was a great lover of architecture and the buildings he designed reflect attributes of his character. Like Trajan before him, the emperor Hadrian had a long and successful career as an emperor of Rome, reigning from 117 to 138 CE.\r\n\r\nHadrian\u2019s time as emperor was marked with peace and relative stability throughout the empire. He was an active general in the military, both before and after becoming emperor, despite a lull in military conflicts during his reign. He worked to strengthen Rome\u2019s borders by building fortifications, outposts, and walls.\r\n\r\nThe most famous of these is Hadrian\u2019s Wall in Britannia that marked the northern boundary of the empire on the isle. Hadrian also travelled extensively, enjoying new cultures, inspecting troops, and promoting military readiness.\r\n<h3>Ostia<\/h3>\r\nDuring Hadrian\u2019s reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, reaching over 75,000 inhabitants by the third century CE. Located at the mouth of the Tiber on the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ostia was the main port city of Rome. The city was first founded during the third century BCE, as one of Rome\u2019s earliest colonies.\r\n\r\nThe ruins of Ostia are from the city\u2019s imperial period when it was at the height of its prosperity. Since Rome was settled inland, Ostia was always an important component of the capital city, especially as the empire expanded and relied on its provinces for survival. Merchant vessels and large ships filled with grains, building materials, and other goods to sell in Rome docked at Ostia, where the goods were eventually transferred upriver.\r\n<h3>Insulae<\/h3>\r\nOstia was a typical Roman city, including a large central forum, bathhouses, temples, a theatre, barracks for firemen, and apartment buildings. The two central streets of the city, the cardo and decumanus, ran north-south and east-west through the city, intersecting at the forum\u2014the center of the city\u2019s civic and religious activities.\r\n\r\nThe citizens of Ostia lived in apartment houses or insulae, which stood six or seven stories high. The insulae of Ostia demonstrate the cramped and noisy living style that was common in Roman cities. Shops, known as tabernae, occupied the ground level of the insulae, while the upper stories housed apartments.\r\n\r\nRoman apartments varied in size from larger homes located on the lower floors with private dining and cooking areas, as well as private toilets, to small, cramped rooms with communal cooking areas and toilets on the upper floors.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33985\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"599\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/xlzh6cphtnugwueyc88c.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the ruins of insulae (apartment blocks).\" width=\"599\" height=\"449\" \/> <em><strong>Insulae at Ostia:<\/strong> Insulae or apartment blocks in the city of Ostia.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Religion<\/h3>\r\nExcavations at Ostia reveal a variety of temples and meeting sites for cults and rituals. This reflects the relative religious diversity within the Roman Empire. Common features throughout the Empire include the Capitolium, the temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in the forum at the center of the city.\r\n\r\nAcross from the Capitolium in the forum stands a temple dedicated to Augustus and Roma. Within close proximity is the Temple to Hercules, and throughout the city are temples dedicated to gods related to shipping and commerce, as well temples built by guilds such as the shipbuilders or the rope makers for their patron gods.\r\n\r\nOn the city\u2019s outskirts, there is also a large sanctuary to the goddess Cybele or Magna Mater, attesting to her popularity in the city. The god <em>Mithras<\/em> was also popular among the Ostians and worshiped solely by men in the form of a mystery cult. Over 15 <em>mithraea<\/em> have been discovered in the city. These <em>mithraea<\/em> are nearly all built underground to replicate the cave central to the myths of <em>Mithras<\/em>. Hadrian\u2019s general religious tolerance is reflected in this religious diversity, including the presence of a Jewish synagogue.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33986\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"597\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/l09oq5cvqr4lqnru1x6d.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the Capitolium at Ostia, including the steps up to the building and what remains of its walls and fluted columns.\" width=\"597\" height=\"398\" \/> <em><strong>The Capitolium at Ostia:<\/strong> This temple is dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and is located in the forum at the center of the city.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento<\/h3>\r\nThe Arch of Trajan in Benevento draws visual cues from the Arch of Titus at Rome. This arch, built between 114 and 117 CE, was erected over the Via Appia, one of Rome\u2019s most ancient roads through southern Italy, as the road entered Beneventum.\r\n\r\nLike the Arch of Titus, the Arch of Trajan is ornately decorated with scenes of conquest and the deeds completed by Trajan. On both sides of the arch is a dedicatory inscription. The exterior is decorated with engaged columns and reliefs of Trajan\u2019s military conquest of Dacia, the extent of the Roman empire, and allegorical scenes of imperial power, as well as Trajan\u2019s good deeds as both a builder of public works and as the founder of a charitable institution for children in Roman Italy.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33984\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"590\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/nbbsvqywr0eyltwz2a0t.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Trajan at Benevento. It captures the reliefs described below.\" width=\"590\" height=\"658\" \/> <em><strong>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento:<\/strong> View from the north. Benevento, Italy. 114\u2013117 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe two interior relief panels depict the religious activity of Trajan. One shows him making a sacrifice in one of Rome\u2019s oldest fora, the Forum Boarium, which was home to some of the city\u2019s oldest temples. The other panel depicts Trajan being welcomed after his apotheosis by the Capitoline Triad. These two scenes depict Trajan\u2019s piety as well as the approval given to him by the three most important gods in the Roman pantheon.\r\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum<\/h3>\r\nHadrian also built a large mausoleum for himself and his family on the right bank of the Tiber River in Rome. Its original design seems to have purposely recalled the Mausoleum of Augustus, located across the river on the Campus Martius. The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian and his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him. While Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum still stands today, it was later converted into a residence and fortress under the Roman popes and now serves as a museum.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9969\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"595\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160122\/006castelsangelo.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of Hadrian's Mausoleum as described in the caption.\" width=\"595\" height=\"446\" \/> <em><strong>Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum:<\/strong> The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian and his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Trajan\u2019s Forum was built from 106 to 113 CE from the spoils of the conquest of Dacia, and it celebrates Trajan\u2019s military power. The forum provided much-needed public space for law courts and other political and administrative meetings.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Markets of Trajan were built into the Quirinal Hill. The vaulted halls provided rooms for administrative offices, shops, and perhaps even apartments.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Apollodorus of Damascus was Trajan\u2019s court architect who designed and built many of Trajan\u2019s architectural projects. He was dismissed by Hadrian because he did not appreciate Hadrian\u2019s architectural inspirations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118\u2013125 CE. The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent unreinforced concrete dome.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian\u2019s villa at Tivoli demonstrates his interest in the eclectic cultural styles he saw during his travels around the empire, as well as his own innovative spirit toward architecture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Emperor Trajan continued an era of peace and stability that saw the fullest expansion of the empire, as well as the execution of numerous public works, ranging from building programs to social welfare.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Column of Trajan is an artistic feat that depicts Trajan\u2019s military conquest over the Dacians (101 CE\u2013102 CE and 105 CE\u201316 CE), through a series of more than 150 episodes that show over 2,500 figures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Antonine dynasty consists of four emperors, who ruled from 132 to 192 CE. Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius are considered the last two of the Five Good Emperors who reigned consecutively during the second century CE.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The pedestal for the Column of Antoninus Pius, erected by his adopted sons and heirs, depicts both a conservative Classical artistic style as well as a new artistic style that was previously only seen in plebeian art.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Despite sharing several attributes with the Column of Trajan, the Column of Marcus Aurelius features higher reliefs, stockier figures, distorted proportions, and emphasis on military strength. These new elements point to the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian reigned from 117 to 138 CE. Under his reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, with its population inhabiting apartment blocks called insulae.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian\u2019s general religious tolerance is reflected in the diversity of religious temples and even a Jewish synagogue in Ostia.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento depicts scenes often seen on triumphal arches, including scenes of military conquest, imperial piety and divinity, as well programs of building and social works that Trajan implemented.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian built a mausoleum for himself and his family that became an imperial mausoleum over the next several generations.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The portraiture of Nerva and Trajan both display a militaristic look.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hadrian changed the Roman portrait style to reflect the Greek style and he mimicked the hair and beard style of ancient Greek politicians. Antoninus Pius continued this style, while Marcus Aurelius modelled his appearance after Greek philosophers.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules, complete with attributes associated with the hero and his deeds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Imperial women set the style and fashion for elite hairstyles. The styles of Trajan\u2019s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia demonstrate a simplified abstract vertical form based on the earlier curly, extravagant Flavian style.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Both Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wives chose to follow their respective husband\u2019s choice of style, and are depicted with hairstyles that derive from Greece, though they are notably more subdued than the styles of their predecessors.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdapted from\u00a0<strong>\"Boundless Art History\"<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-nervan-antonines\/\u00a0<strong> License:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"nav-container\">\n<div class=\"skip-to-content\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\n<div id=\"wrap\">\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\n<div id=\"post-1750\" class=\"standard post-1750 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<p>The emperors Trajan and Hadrian were the two most prolific emperors who constructed buildings during the Nervan-Antonine dynasty.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key Middle Empire works<\/li>\n<li>Define critical terms related to Middle Empire art<\/li>\n<li>Discuss Trajan\u2019s Forum, Trajan\u2019s Markets, Hadrian\u2019s Pantheon, and Hadrian\u2019s Villa at Tivoli<\/li>\n<li>Contrast male and female imperial portraiture during this time period from that of the Flavian dynasty<\/li>\n<li>Describe the monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius and what they emphasized<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h3>Public Building Programs<\/h3>\n<p>Public building programs were prevalent under the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine dynasty. During this period of peace, stability, and an expansion of the empire\u2019s borders, many of the emperors sought to cast themselves in the image of the first imperial builder, Augustus. The projects these emperors conducted around the empire included the building and restoration of roads, bridges, and aqueducts. In Rome, these imperial building projects strengthened the image of the emperor and directly addressed the needs of the citizens of the city.<\/p>\n<h3>Trajan\u2019s Forum<\/h3>\n<p>Trajan\u2019s Forum was the last of the imperial fora to be built in the city. The forum\u2019s main entrance was accessed from the south, near to the Forum of Augustus as well as the Forum of Caesar (which Trajan also renovated). The Forum of Augustus might have been the model for the Forum of Trajan, even though the latter was much larger. Both fora were rectangular in shape with a temple at one end. Both appear to have a set of exedra on either side.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9972\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 639px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160037\/forum-traianii-map.png\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of the Forum of Trajan and Trajan's Markets. The Forum consisted of a vast portico-lined piazza wide exedrae on two sides. On either side of the piazza are markets.\" width=\"639\" height=\"600\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Plan of the Forum of Trajan and Trajan\u2019s Markets:<\/strong> Trajan built the forum and markets around the same time from 106 to 113 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Trajan built his forum with the spoils from his conquest of Dacia. The visual elements within the forum speak of his military prowess and Rome\u2019s victory. A triumphal arch mounted with an image of the emperor in a six-horse chariot greeted patrons at the southern entrance.<\/p>\n<p>In the center of the large courtyard stood an equestrian statue of Trajan, and additional bronze statues of him in a quadriga lined the roof of the Basilica Ulpia, which transected the forum in the northern end. This large civic building served as a meeting place for the commerce and law courts. It was lavishly furnished with marble floors, facades, and the hall was filled with tall marble columns.<\/p>\n<p>The Basilica Ulpia also separated the arcaded courtyard from two libraries (one for Greek texts, the other for Latin), the Column of Trajan, and a temple dedicated to the Divine Trajan.<\/p>\n<h3>Trajan\u2019s Markets<\/h3>\n<p>Trajan\u2019s markets were an additional public building that the emperor built at the same time as his forum. The markets were built on top of and into the Quirinal Hill. They consisted of a series of multi-levelled halls lined with rooms for shops, administrative offices, or apartments. The markets follow the shape of Trajan\u2019s forum.<\/p>\n<p>A portion of them are shaped into a large <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_788_1221\">exedra<\/a>, framing one of the exedra of the forum. Like Trajan\u2019s forum, the markets were elaborately decorated with marble floors and revetment, as well as decorative columns to frame the doorways.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9971\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 666px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160041\/trajansmarket.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows the ruins of the Trajan's Markets.\" width=\"666\" height=\"191\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Trajan\u2019s Markets:<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s Markets as they stand today.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Apollodorus of Damascus<\/h3>\n<p>Many of Trajan\u2019s architectural achievements were designed by his architect, Apollodorus of Damascus. Apollodorus was a Greek engineer from Damascus, Syria. He designed Trajan\u2019s forums and markets, the Arch of Trajan at Benevento, and an important bridge across the Danube during the campaigns against the Dacians.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately for Apollodorus, Trajan\u2019s heir Hadrian also took an interest in architecture. According to Roman biographers, Apollodorus did not appreciate Hadrian\u2019s interests or architectural drawings and often discredited them. Upon the succession of the new emperor, Apollodorus was dismissed from court.<\/p>\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Pantheon<\/h3>\n<p>Hadrian\u2019s most famous contribution to the city of Rome was his rebuilding of the Pantheon, a temple to all the gods, that was first built by Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. Agrippa\u2019s Pantheon burned down in the 80s CE, was rebuilt by Domitian, and burned down again in 110 CE.<\/p>\n<p>Hadrian\u2019s Pantheon still remains standing today, a great testament of Roman engineering and ingenuity. The Pantheon was consecrated as a church during the medieval period and was later used as a burial site.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9974\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 481px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160043\/ante-c3-b3n-de-roma-alzado.jpeg\" alt=\"This is an elevation drawing of the Pantheon. Elevation views show materials, texture profiles of the building, and heights of and between elements like windows and detailing.\" width=\"481\" height=\"394\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Elevation drawing of the Pantheon:<\/strong> The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent concrete, unreinforced dome.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9973\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 599px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160048\/rom-pantheon-mit-obelisk.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows an exterior view of the Pantheon as it stands today. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment.\" width=\"599\" height=\"398\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Pantheon:<\/strong> Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118\u2013125 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The most unusual aspect of the Pantheon is its magnificent coffered dome, which was originally gilded in bronze. The concrete dome, which provided inspiration to numerous Renaissance and Neoclassical architects, spans over 142 feet and remains the largest unreinforced dome today. It stands due to a series of relieving arches and because the supportive base of the building is nearly twenty feet thick.<\/p>\n<p>The cylindrical drum on which the dome rests consists of hollowed-out brick filled with concrete for extra reinforcement. At the center of the dome is a large oculus that lets in light, fresh air, and even rain. Both the oculus and the coffered ceiling lighten the weight of the dome, allowing it to stand without additional supports.<\/p>\n<p>The Pantheon takes its shape from Greek circular temples, however, it is faced by a Roman rectangular portico and a triangular pediment supported by monolithic granite columns imported from Egypt. The portico, which originally included a flight of stairs to a podium, acts as a visual trick, preparing viewers to enter a typical rectangular temple when they would instead be walking into a circular one.<\/p>\n<p>A dedicatory inscription is carved in the entablature under the pediment. The inscription reads as the original inscription would have read when the Pantheon was first built by Agrippa. Hadrian\u2019s decision to use the original inscription links him to the original imperial builders of Rome.<\/p>\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Villa at Tivoli<\/h3>\n<p>Hadrian travelled extensively during his reign and was frequently exposed to a variety of local architectural styles. His villa at Tivoli (built during the second and third decades of the second century CE) reflects the influence of styles found in locations such as Greece and Egypt.<\/p>\n<p>Among the designs he borrowed are caryatids and statues beside them that depict the Egyptian dwarf and fertility god Bes. A Greek Maritime Theater exhibits classical Ionic style, whereas the domes of the main buildings, as well as the Corinthian arches of the Canopus (a pool)\u00a0and Serapeum (an artificial grotto), clearly show the influence of Roman architecture.<\/p>\n<p>One structure in the villa is the so-called Maritime Theater. It consists of a round portico with a barrel vault supported by pillars. Inside the portico was a ring-shaped pool with a central island. Inside the outer wall and surrounding the moat are a ring of unfluted Ionic columns.<\/p>\n<p>The Maritime Theater includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, a washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain. During ancient times, the island was connected to the portico by two wooden drawbridges. On the island sits a small Roman house complete with an atrium, a library, a triclinium, and small baths. The area was probably used by the emperor as a retreat from the busy life at the court.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33981\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 558px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/aeiipks9qtmhgzahouvb.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the current-day ruins of the Maritime Theater at Hadrian's villa. It is an island enclosure, displaying classical ionic style. The photo shows the remains of a circular shaped structure and ionic columns surrounded by a circular pool.\" width=\"558\" height=\"279\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Maritime Theater at Hadrian\u2019s Villa:<\/strong> The theatre includes a lounge, a library, heated baths, three suites with heated floors, a washbasin, an art gallery, and a large fountain.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The villa utilizes numerous architectural styles and innovations. The domes of the steam baths have circular holes on the apex to allow steam to escape. This is reminiscent of the Pantheon. The area has a network of underground tunnels. The tunnels were mostly used to transport servants and goods from one area to another. In total, the villa\u2019s structures demonstrate the emperor\u2019s innovative spirit in the field of architecture.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33982\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 615px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/9xbvetwqaqx9h0pecqbc.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows the ruins of the domes that once housed the Great Baths at Hadrian's villa.\" width=\"615\" height=\"146\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Great Baths at Hadrian\u2019s Villa:<\/strong> The domes of the steam baths have circular holes at the apex to allow steam to escape.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Imperial Sculpture under the Nervan-Antonines<\/h2>\n<p>The imperial portraiture of men and women in the early- to mid-second century reflects an increasing austerity and interest in the Greeks. Imperial portraiture under the Flavians first depicted the emperors as mature, older men. Nerva, who only reigned for two years before his natural death in 98 CE, was declared emperor by the Senate following Domitian\u2019s assassination. Since he had no natural sons of his own, Nerva adopted a young and popular general, Trajan, to be his successor.<\/p>\n<p>Nerva\u2019s portraiture followed the style of imperial portraiture during the Flavian era. The few portraits that remain from the two years of his rule depict a man with a receding hairline and a small mouth. The portraiture of Nerva and later of Trajan display an increasingly militaristic look.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9945\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 525px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160051\/nerva-tivoli-massimo.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Nerva. It shows his hair pushed back from his forehead. He has a sharp, narrow nose.\" width=\"525\" height=\"796\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Nerva:<\/strong> The portraiture of Nerva and later of Trajan display an increasing militaristic look.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Nerva\u2019s successor and adopted son Trajan was a much more successful emperor who was well-liked by both the Senate and the people of Rome. He reigned for nearly twenty years (98\u2013117 CE), and expanded the empire\u2019s borders while implementing extensive public building and social welfare programs. Trajan\u2019s portraits depict him as ageing, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, those of Augustus and Alexander the Great.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9947\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 552px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160055\/anus-glyptothek-munich-336.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Trajan. He has a full head of hair with bangs that stop above his eyebrows, triangular nose, and thin straight lips.\" width=\"552\" height=\"794\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Trajan:<\/strong> Trajan\u2019s portraits depict him as ageing, but always with a full head of hair and a typical Roman hairstyle that is reminiscent of, although not identical to, those of Augustus and Alexander the Great.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Hadrian, Trajan\u2019s adopted son and heir, peacefully became emperor in 117 CE. He was a great lover of Greek culture and wore a closely trimmed beard in the style of Classical Greek statesmen, such as the Athenian Pericles. Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him also wore a beard. Prior to Hadrian, nearly all Roman men were clean-shaven.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9946\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 528px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160057\/ian-musei-capitolini-mc817.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Hadrian. He has curly hair and a beard.\" width=\"528\" height=\"660\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Hadrian:<\/strong> Hadrian set a fashion for beards among Romans, and most emperors after him also wore a beard.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Antoninus Pius, Hadrian\u2019s adopted heir and successor, mimics his predecessor\u2019s appearance in his official portraits\u2014thick curly hair and a curly, closely-trimmed beard. By having his own portraits copy those of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between himself and his predecessor.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34004\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 395px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ependbgq2zdjisuugaqz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Antoninus Pius. He has a hairstyle and beard that resemble his predecessor Hadrian.\" width=\"395\" height=\"395\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> By having his own portraits copy those of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius forged a visual link between himself and his predecessor.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Antonius Pius\u2019s adoptive sons Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius are also identified by the beards they wore. Both men are depicted with heads of thick, curly hair and long, curly beards. Unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek statesmen, this style was more akin to the preferred style of the Greek philosophers. Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher. This style matched his personality and interests.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9943\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 553px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160101\/aurelius-glyptothek-munich.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Marcus Aurelius. He has curly hair and long, curly beard.\" width=\"553\" height=\"865\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Marcus Aurelius:<\/strong> Marcus Aurelius admired the Greeks and was himself a philosopher. He wore his beard long and curly, like the Greek philosophers.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34005\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 394px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/maqeziesqswm8ioeyo3o.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of a bust of Lucius Verus, the adopted brother of Marcus Aurelius. He, too, has curly hair and a long, curly beard.\" width=\"394\" height=\"456\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Lucius Verus:<\/strong> The brother of Marcus Aurelius also wore his beard long and curly, like the Greek philosophers, unlike the closely trimmed beard style of Greek statesmen.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Unlike the rest of the emperors of the Nervan-Antonine line, Marcus Aurelius fathered a son who became his heir. Commodus\u2019s portrait style followed that of his father and of preceding emperors. Commodus was egotistical and even had the head of the Colossus of Nero (now an image of the god Sol) recast in his own likeness.<\/p>\n<p>Commodus also believed he was the reincarnation of Hercules and claimed power from Hercules\u2019s father, Jupiter. He even commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules. These portraits show him with the now-traditional imperial style of thick, curly hair and a curly beard. Hercules\u2019s lion skin is draped over his head and around his shoulders and he often carries a club and sometimes the apples of the Hesperides.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9944\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 620px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160103\/us-musei-capitolini-mc1120.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a statue of Commodus as Hercules. Here, the Roman Emperor has taken on the guise of the mythological hero, Hercules. He has been given the attributes of the hero: a lion skin placed over his head, a club placed in his right hand, and the golden apples of Hesperides in his left.\" width=\"620\" height=\"945\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Commodus as Hercules:<\/strong> Commodus believed he was the reincarnation of Hercules and claimed power from Hercules\u2019s father, Jupiter. He even commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Imperial Female Portraiture<\/h3>\n<p>The women of imperial families set the standards of fashion and beauty during the reigns of their husbands or other male family members. These women also established the hairstyles of the period, which are so distinctive that busts and statues are easily dated to specific decades in accordance with the hairstyle of the woman depicted.<\/p>\n<p>During the Nervan-Antonine period, the portraits of imperial women and their hairstyles kept some Flavian flavour but were simpler than they had been. The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head.<\/p>\n<p>Trajan\u2019s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia established a new style that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style. Their hairstyles still involved a vertical element, but the curls were simplified on the crown of the head. Matidia\u2019s natural hair was gathered above the nape of the neck, while Pompeia Plotina wore a braid at the back of her head.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34006\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 465px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ashqwrbqgssbsn4ygvtg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This photo shows two coins with images of Pompeia Plotina. The profile view of Pompeia Plotina shows the hairstyle she established.\" width=\"465\" height=\"212\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Pompeia Plotina:<\/strong> This profile view of Pompeia Plotina shows the long braid worn behind the crown-like pile of hair in the front.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10073\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 574px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160107\/matidie-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Matidia. It shows the hairstyle she established, a stack of braids resembling a crown.\" width=\"574\" height=\"784\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Matidia:<\/strong> Matidia established a new hairstyle that was almost an abstraction of the Flavian style.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10072\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 465px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160110\/matronalivia2.jpeg\" alt=\"This is photo of a bust of a Flavian woman. It shows a fashionable Flavian hairstyle, a stack a tight curls arranged at the crown.\" width=\"465\" height=\"518\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Bust of a Flavian woman:<\/strong> The fashionable style among women during the reign of the Flavians involved hairpieces and wigs to create a stack of curls on the crown of the head.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Just as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hairstyle, helping to promote Hadrian\u2019s Panhellenic agenda. Sabina is depicted with simplified facial features, and her style is comparable to that worn by Praxitiles\u2019s sculpture Aphrodite of Knidos. Her hair is held back by a band and carefully woven around the back of the head. A similar style was promoted by Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10069\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 308px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160114\/ustina-minor-louvre-ma1144.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Faustina the Younger, depicting hair parted in the middle and carefully crimped close to the head.\" width=\"308\" height=\"420\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Faustina the Younger:<\/strong> Greek hairstyles were promoted by Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wife, Faustina the Younger, who is depicted here with carefully crimped hair worn close to the head.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10070\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 545px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160117\/ia-sabina-28m.-prado-29-01.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a bust of Vibia Sabina wearing her hair in a braided updo, a Greek hairstyle.\" width=\"545\" height=\"735\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Vibia Sabina:<\/strong> Just as Hadrian chose to wear his hair and beard in a Greek style, his wife Sabina also chose a Greek hairstyle, helping to promote Hadrian\u2019s Panhellenic agenda.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Victory Columns under the Nervan-Antonines<\/h2>\n<p>The monuments dedicated to the reigns of Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius emphasize their military achievements, divinity, and public works.<\/p>\n<h3>Imperial Memorial<\/h3>\n<p>Trajan was born in Spain and rose to prominence in the Roman army during the reign of Domitian. He was a popular general who was adopted by Emperor Nerva as his son and heir after Nerva realized he needed to choose a successor who was liked by the people.<\/p>\n<p>During Trajan\u2019s reign of nearly twenty years, from 98 CE to 117 CE, the Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial range. Trajan established large building programs both in Rome and throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<h3>Column of Trajan<\/h3>\n<p>Trajan and his architect Apollodorus of Damascus designed and built a large forum complex in the center of Rome. Standing between the libraries of the Forum of Trajan is a 128-foot tall victory column, known as the Column of Trajan. It stands on top of a large pedestal carved with a relief of the spoils of war.<\/p>\n<p>The pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan\u2019s ashes upon his death and deification. He is the first emperor to be buried inside the pomerium, the religious boundary around the city of Rome. A 625-foot frieze that depicts Trajan\u2019s two military campaigns against the Dacians is sculpted in a spiral relief that wraps around the column, from its bottom to its top.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34017\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 238px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/dfnhmikuqsqsgbcgsrz1.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Column of Trajan. The structure is about 35 meters tall, including the pedestal. The shaft is a colossal Carrara marble drums decorated in reliefs that depict military battles. It is topped with a statue of Trajan.\" width=\"238\" height=\"1293\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The column of Trajan:<\/strong> The pedestal later served as a tomb for Trajan\u2019s ashes upon his death and deification. Located in Rome, Italy, c. 112 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"font-size: 1em;text-align: initial;font-style: normal\">The frieze depicts over 150 episodes with more than 2,500 figures. The scenes show the Roman army preparing for war, including scenes of moving the army, building fortifications, Emperor Trajan addressing the troops, battles, and the eventual surrender by the Dacians.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Only one-quarter of the narration depicts battles, while the remaining panels depict scenes of preparation and other activities. The heavy emphasis on preparation, instead of battle, emphasizes the Romans\u2019 organization and the power behind the army.<\/p>\n<p>The visual narration is depicted in low relief (bas relief) and relies little on naturalistic detail, preferring to show some scenes in multiple perspectives and with figures on different ground lines. Important characters, such as Trajan, reappear throughout the frieze and are easily identified.<\/p>\n<p>Trajan himself appears 59 times, leading his troops as the head of the army and the empire. With the exception of the appearance of a few Victory figures and a river god, the Romans and Trajan are shown conquering the Dacians under their own power, through their own superiority over their enemy, without the help of divine intervention.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9965\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 593px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160119\/relief-kolumna-trajana.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of five registers or bands from the Column of Trajan. Each band portrays scenes from Trajan's two victorious military campaigns against the Dacians.\" width=\"593\" height=\"791\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Detail from the Column of Trajan:<\/strong> This detail shows five registers or bands from the Column of Trajan.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Trajan\u2019s victory column was originally topped by an eagle and later with a statue of Trajan. The statue of Trajan eventually disappeared and was replaced in the sixteenth\u00a0century by a bronze statue of St. Peter.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars have recently called the legibility of the figures into question. Because of the column\u2019s location, nestled between the libraries and the basilica of the Trajan\u2019s Forum, the scenes, which are carved in low relief, are small and hard to read. It is uncertain how much of the column\u2019s relief Romans would have been able to see. There is some speculation about whether knowledge of the idea of the narrative was more important than being physically able to read the narrative.<\/p>\n<h3>The Column of Antoninus Pius<\/h3>\n<p>Antoninus Pius (r. 138\u2013161 CE), the first of the Antonine emperors, was the adopted son of Hadrian. His heirs, Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. had a column erected to him on the Campus Martius, the base of which survives today.<\/p>\n<p>On two of its sides is an identical scene of a military decision depicting cavalry men parading around soldiers, two of whom hold standards. The relief carvings are high enough to protrude from the sides and be visible when viewing the non-decursio side of the pedestal. It depicts each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a bird\u2019s eye view.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34001\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 611px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/8pyktflmscyyfsece8xz.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius. It shows the decursio scene in which members of the cavalry (men on horses) circle the standing figures, two carrying military standards and the rest fully armored.\" width=\"611\" height=\"489\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> This side shows the decursio scene. The relief carvings depict each figure from a ground-level perspective while showing the circular parade from a bird\u2019s eye view.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>On one of the other two sides is a dedicatory inscription. On the opposite panel is a scene of the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. The scene depicts a large winged figure named Aion (Eternity) carrying the couple, surrounded by two eagles, to heaven.<\/p>\n<p>Two figures look on from the ground. One is a personification of the Campus Martius, lounging on the ground with an arm around Augustus\u2019 sundial obelisk, the location where the ritual of deification occurred. The other is a personification of Rome, who appears as a woman wearing armour. She salutes the emperor and empress during their apotheosis while leaning on a shield depicting the she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34002\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 605px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/lpyhve9issu5mcnozm6f.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius. It shows the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, in which a winged genius carries Antoninus and his wife Faustina to Heaven. The Emperor holds a sceptre crowned with an eagle, whilst eagles also fly upwards with them.\" width=\"605\" height=\"454\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius:<\/strong> The apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, c. 61 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Column of Marcus Aurelius<\/h3>\n<p>A victory column was also erected for Marcus Aurelius (r. 161\u2013180 CE). This column is modelled on Trajan\u2019s column and was originally erected on the Campus Martius between the Temple of Divine Hadrian and the Temple of Divine Marcus Aurelius. A relief frieze encircles the column and depicts Marcus Aurelius\u2019s military campaigns at the end of his life in Germania.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34003\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 596px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/vj6bypxt3ab3kj38iiwx.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Column of Marcus Aurelius the five bands in the spiral picture relief tell the story of Marcus Aurelius\u2019 Danubian or Marcomannic wars, waged by him from 166 to his death.\" width=\"596\" height=\"550\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The column of Marcus Aurelius:<\/strong> A detail of five bands from the column, circa 193 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Despite the similar military scenes, the artistic style of the Column of Marcus Aurelius differs greatly from the Column of Trajan. The figures in this column are stockier and their proportions are distorted. The extra-large heads and deep relief carving were utilized so that the figures were easier to see from the ground than those on Trajan\u2019s column.<\/p>\n<p>The military strength of the empire is emphasized more so than on the Column of Trajan, where the majority of the scenes depict the preparation for battle, instead of the battles themselves. The new style, high relief, and military emphasis demonstrate the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Architecture under Hadrian<\/h2>\n<p>Hadrian was a great lover of architecture and the buildings he designed reflect attributes of his character. Like Trajan before him, the emperor Hadrian had a long and successful career as an emperor of Rome, reigning from 117 to 138 CE.<\/p>\n<p>Hadrian\u2019s time as emperor was marked with peace and relative stability throughout the empire. He was an active general in the military, both before and after becoming emperor, despite a lull in military conflicts during his reign. He worked to strengthen Rome\u2019s borders by building fortifications, outposts, and walls.<\/p>\n<p>The most famous of these is Hadrian\u2019s Wall in Britannia that marked the northern boundary of the empire on the isle. Hadrian also travelled extensively, enjoying new cultures, inspecting troops, and promoting military readiness.<\/p>\n<h3>Ostia<\/h3>\n<p>During Hadrian\u2019s reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, reaching over 75,000 inhabitants by the third century CE. Located at the mouth of the Tiber on the Tyrrhenian Sea, Ostia was the main port city of Rome. The city was first founded during the third century BCE, as one of Rome\u2019s earliest colonies.<\/p>\n<p>The ruins of Ostia are from the city\u2019s imperial period when it was at the height of its prosperity. Since Rome was settled inland, Ostia was always an important component of the capital city, especially as the empire expanded and relied on its provinces for survival. Merchant vessels and large ships filled with grains, building materials, and other goods to sell in Rome docked at Ostia, where the goods were eventually transferred upriver.<\/p>\n<h3>Insulae<\/h3>\n<p>Ostia was a typical Roman city, including a large central forum, bathhouses, temples, a theatre, barracks for firemen, and apartment buildings. The two central streets of the city, the cardo and decumanus, ran north-south and east-west through the city, intersecting at the forum\u2014the center of the city\u2019s civic and religious activities.<\/p>\n<p>The citizens of Ostia lived in apartment houses or insulae, which stood six or seven stories high. The insulae of Ostia demonstrate the cramped and noisy living style that was common in Roman cities. Shops, known as tabernae, occupied the ground level of the insulae, while the upper stories housed apartments.<\/p>\n<p>Roman apartments varied in size from larger homes located on the lower floors with private dining and cooking areas, as well as private toilets, to small, cramped rooms with communal cooking areas and toilets on the upper floors.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33985\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 599px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/xlzh6cphtnugwueyc88c.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the ruins of insulae (apartment blocks).\" width=\"599\" height=\"449\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Insulae at Ostia:<\/strong> Insulae or apartment blocks in the city of Ostia.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Religion<\/h3>\n<p>Excavations at Ostia reveal a variety of temples and meeting sites for cults and rituals. This reflects the relative religious diversity within the Roman Empire. Common features throughout the Empire include the Capitolium, the temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in the forum at the center of the city.<\/p>\n<p>Across from the Capitolium in the forum stands a temple dedicated to Augustus and Roma. Within close proximity is the Temple to Hercules, and throughout the city are temples dedicated to gods related to shipping and commerce, as well temples built by guilds such as the shipbuilders or the rope makers for their patron gods.<\/p>\n<p>On the city\u2019s outskirts, there is also a large sanctuary to the goddess Cybele or Magna Mater, attesting to her popularity in the city. The god <em>Mithras<\/em> was also popular among the Ostians and worshiped solely by men in the form of a mystery cult. Over 15 <em>mithraea<\/em> have been discovered in the city. These <em>mithraea<\/em> are nearly all built underground to replicate the cave central to the myths of <em>Mithras<\/em>. Hadrian\u2019s general religious tolerance is reflected in this religious diversity, including the presence of a Jewish synagogue.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33986\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 597px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/l09oq5cvqr4lqnru1x6d.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins of the Capitolium at Ostia, including the steps up to the building and what remains of its walls and fluted columns.\" width=\"597\" height=\"398\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Capitolium at Ostia:<\/strong> This temple is dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and is located in the forum at the center of the city.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento<\/h3>\n<p>The Arch of Trajan in Benevento draws visual cues from the Arch of Titus at Rome. This arch, built between 114 and 117 CE, was erected over the Via Appia, one of Rome\u2019s most ancient roads through southern Italy, as the road entered Beneventum.<\/p>\n<p>Like the Arch of Titus, the Arch of Trajan is ornately decorated with scenes of conquest and the deeds completed by Trajan. On both sides of the arch is a dedicatory inscription. The exterior is decorated with engaged columns and reliefs of Trajan\u2019s military conquest of Dacia, the extent of the Roman empire, and allegorical scenes of imperial power, as well as Trajan\u2019s good deeds as both a builder of public works and as the founder of a charitable institution for children in Roman Italy.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/33984\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 590px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/nbbsvqywr0eyltwz2a0t.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Trajan at Benevento. It captures the reliefs described below.\" width=\"590\" height=\"658\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento:<\/strong> View from the north. Benevento, Italy. 114\u2013117 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The two interior relief panels depict the religious activity of Trajan. One shows him making a sacrifice in one of Rome\u2019s oldest fora, the Forum Boarium, which was home to some of the city\u2019s oldest temples. The other panel depicts Trajan being welcomed after his apotheosis by the Capitoline Triad. These two scenes depict Trajan\u2019s piety as well as the approval given to him by the three most important gods in the Roman pantheon.<\/p>\n<h3>Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum<\/h3>\n<p>Hadrian also built a large mausoleum for himself and his family on the right bank of the Tiber River in Rome. Its original design seems to have purposely recalled the Mausoleum of Augustus, located across the river on the Campus Martius. The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian and his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him. While Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum still stands today, it was later converted into a residence and fortress under the Roman popes and now serves as a museum.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/9969\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 595px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160122\/006castelsangelo.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of Hadrian's Mausoleum as described in the caption.\" width=\"595\" height=\"446\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Hadrian\u2019s Mausoleum:<\/strong> The Mausoleum of Hadrian was a large cylinder topped by a garden and quadriga statue. A central room housed the ashes of Hadrian and his family, as well as several of the emperors who succeeded him.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Trajan\u2019s Forum was built from 106 to 113 CE from the spoils of the conquest of Dacia, and it celebrates Trajan\u2019s military power. The forum provided much-needed public space for law courts and other political and administrative meetings.<\/li>\n<li>The Markets of Trajan were built into the Quirinal Hill. The vaulted halls provided rooms for administrative offices, shops, and perhaps even apartments.<\/li>\n<li>Apollodorus of Damascus was Trajan\u2019s court architect who designed and built many of Trajan\u2019s architectural projects. He was dismissed by Hadrian because he did not appreciate Hadrian\u2019s architectural inspirations.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon of Agrippa in 118\u2013125 CE. The Pantheon is an architectural innovation with a magnificent unreinforced concrete dome.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian\u2019s villa at Tivoli demonstrates his interest in the eclectic cultural styles he saw during his travels around the empire, as well as his own innovative spirit toward architecture.<\/li>\n<li>Emperor Trajan continued an era of peace and stability that saw the fullest expansion of the empire, as well as the execution of numerous public works, ranging from building programs to social welfare.<\/li>\n<li>The Column of Trajan is an artistic feat that depicts Trajan\u2019s military conquest over the Dacians (101 CE\u2013102 CE and 105 CE\u201316 CE), through a series of more than 150 episodes that show over 2,500 figures.<\/li>\n<li>The Antonine dynasty consists of four emperors, who ruled from 132 to 192 CE. Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius are considered the last two of the Five Good Emperors who reigned consecutively during the second century CE.<\/li>\n<li>The pedestal for the Column of Antoninus Pius, erected by his adopted sons and heirs, depicts both a conservative Classical artistic style as well as a new artistic style that was previously only seen in plebeian art.<\/li>\n<li>Despite sharing several attributes with the Column of Trajan, the Column of Marcus Aurelius features higher reliefs, stockier figures, distorted proportions, and emphasis on military strength. These new elements point to the changing priorities and social-political attitudes of the period.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian reigned from 117 to 138 CE. Under his reign, the port city of Ostia grew significantly, with its population inhabiting apartment blocks called insulae.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian\u2019s general religious tolerance is reflected in the diversity of religious temples and even a Jewish synagogue in Ostia.<\/li>\n<li>The Arch of Trajan at Benevento depicts scenes often seen on triumphal arches, including scenes of military conquest, imperial piety and divinity, as well programs of building and social works that Trajan implemented.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian built a mausoleum for himself and his family that became an imperial mausoleum over the next several generations.<\/li>\n<li>The portraiture of Nerva and Trajan both display a militaristic look.<\/li>\n<li>Hadrian changed the Roman portrait style to reflect the Greek style and he mimicked the hair and beard style of ancient Greek politicians. Antoninus Pius continued this style, while Marcus Aurelius modelled his appearance after Greek philosophers.<\/li>\n<li>Commodus believed himself to be the reincarnation of Hercules and commissioned portraits of himself as Hercules, complete with attributes associated with the hero and his deeds.<\/li>\n<li>Imperial women set the style and fashion for elite hairstyles. The styles of Trajan\u2019s wife Pompeia Plotina and his niece Matidia demonstrate a simplified abstract vertical form based on the earlier curly, extravagant Flavian style.<\/li>\n<li>Both Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius\u2019s wives chose to follow their respective husband\u2019s choice of style, and are depicted with hairstyles that derive from Greece, though they are notably more subdued than the styles of their predecessors.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adapted from\u00a0<strong>&#8220;Boundless Art History&#8221;<\/strong> https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-nervan-antonines\/\u00a0<strong> License:\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_788_1221\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_788_1221\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A semicircular recess, with stone benches, used as a place for discussion.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":961,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-788","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":774,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/788","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/961"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/788\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2263,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/788\/revisions\/2263"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/774"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/788\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=788"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=788"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=788"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=788"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}