{"id":790,"date":"2020-09-23T12:28:24","date_gmt":"2020-09-23T16:28:24","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=790"},"modified":"2021-01-30T17:59:49","modified_gmt":"2021-01-30T22:59:49","slug":"late-empire","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/chapter\/late-empire\/","title":{"raw":"Late Empire Art","rendered":"Late Empire Art"},"content":{"raw":"<h3>The Late Empire<\/h3>\r\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\r\n<div id=\"wrap\">\r\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\r\n<div id=\"post-1766\" class=\"standard post-1766 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\r\n<div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\nThe Severan Dynasty was the last stable period of imperial reign over the Roman Empire until that of Constantine.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key Late Empire works<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Define critical terms related to Late Empire art<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrast the Late Antique style with earlier Classical conventions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Define the Tetrarchy as seen during Diocletian\u2019s rule<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the actions and works of art that Constantine is most noted for<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThe assassination of Commodus in 192 CE once again plunged the Roman Empire into a year of civil war. Five generals succeeded one another until the fifth, Septimius Severus, consolidated power and managed to reign over Rome until his death from illness, 19 years later in 211 CE. He established the Severan Dynasty that reigned until 235 CE, overseen by five different emperors. Unfortunately for Rome, the economy and the bureaucratic and administrative power of the Emperor and the Senate were declining during this time. The five Severan emperors faced great difficulties maintaining control over the empire. Their troubles demonstrate the importance of this pivotal period that ultimately led to Rome\u2019s decline.\r\n<h3>Septimius Severus<\/h3>\r\nTo strengthen his claim as emperor, Septimius Severus declared himself to be the secret son of Marcus Aurelius and even had his portrait fashioned in a similar manner to him. Like Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus wore his beard thick and curly in the style of Greek philosophers. His portraits show him as old, but fit and without the winkles of wisdom seen in Republican [pb_glossary id=\"1216\"]veristic[\/pb_glossary] portraiture.\r\n<h3>Triumphal Arches of Septimius Severus<\/h3>\r\nTwo triumphal arches commissioned by Septimius Severus still stand today: the first at the northwest entrance to the Roman Forum, and the second on the main road leading into the city of Leptis Magna, the Roman colony in modern Libya where Septimius Severus was born. Both were erected in 203 CE and commemorate the emperor\u2019s victory over the Parthians.\r\n\r\nThe Roman Arch of Septimius Severus recalls the [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]triumphal arch[\/pb_glossary] of Augustus, also erected to honour his own victory over the Parthians. Like Augustus\u2019 arch, that of Septimius is a triple arch\u2014the only surviving one in Rome. Decorative panels depict scenes of conquest echoing the military scenes on the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. These, however, depart from the Classical style, stylistically resembling more the figures on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. The figures on the panels are carved in high relief, and each shows multiple scenes. Small [pb_glossary id=\"1018\"]friezes[\/pb_glossary] recounting the triumphal procession also frame the panels. Other decorative elements include winged victories in the spandrels and two sets of four columns, one on each side, that frame the archways.\r\n\r\nThe columns are free-standing, decorative additions to the arch. On the pedestal of each are reliefs of Romans leading captive Parthians away. This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that stood in the Roman Forum and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severus\u2019 imperial rule and the momentum of the empire.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10932\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"571\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160125\/sza-sewera-detal-1dscf0006.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph shows a panel relief between two flutes columns.\" width=\"571\" height=\"428\" \/> <em><strong>The Arch of Septimius Severus: <\/strong>Detail of a panel relief.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10931\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"623\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160127\/h-of-septimus-severus-east.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Roman Arch of Septimius Severus.\" width=\"623\" height=\"467\" \/> <em><strong>The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus:<\/strong> This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that stood in the Roman Forum and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severus\u2019 imperial rule and the momentum of the empire.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna is architecturally distinct and unique in comparison to the triumphal arches of Rome. This arch is four-sided and acts as a gateway into the city. [pb_glossary id=\"1719\"]Corinthian[\/pb_glossary] columns, eight in total, stand at each corner and support a broken pediment, a common architectural feature in the North African and Eastern provinces. Despite its very different design, the arch\u2019s components are in dialogue with the triumphal arch in Rome. Depictions of war spoils and captive barbarians line the interior of the arches and a [pb_glossary id=\"1018\"]frieze[\/pb_glossary] wraps around them, depicting the triumphal procession that occurred in Rome. This frieze is both a portrayal of the actual triumph that Septimius Severus enjoyed as well as a mythical presentation, as gods and personifications are also present in the procession and at the sacrifice that followed.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10933\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"563\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160130\/a-arch-of-septimus-severus.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Septimius Severus.\" width=\"563\" height=\"845\" \/> <em><strong>Arch of Septimius Severus:<\/strong> The arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nMost importantly, the arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity. The figures in the frieze are squat and square. The limbs are thick, and their clothing is stylistically rendered with incised lines that give no indication of the body underneath. It is a complete displacement of the Classical style that dominated Roman art during the previous three centuries\r\n<h3>Baths of Caracalla<\/h3>\r\nCaracalla was one of the last emperors of the century who had the time, resources, and power to build in the city of Rome. His longest-lasting contribution is a large bath complex that stands to the southeast of Rome\u2019s center. It covered over 33 acres and could hold over 1,600 bathers at a time. Bathing was an important part of Roman daily life, and the baths were a place for leisure, business, socializing, exercising, learning, and illicit affairs. These baths not only held the traditional bathing pools but also exercise courts, changing rooms, and Greek and Latin libraries. A Mithraeum has also been found on the site.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10934\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"651\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160132\/caracalla-grundriss.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a diagram of the Baths of Caracalla. It shows the main entrance, the great court, and the baths themselves, consisting of a central frigidarium (cold room) under three groin vaults, a double pool tepidarium, and a caldarium (hot room), as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing were practiced). The north end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool.\" width=\"651\" height=\"431\" \/> <em><strong>Baths of Caracalla:<\/strong> A reconstructed ground plan of this vast complex.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nArchitecturally, the Baths of Caracalla demonstrate the impressive mastery of Roman building and the importance of concrete and the vaulting systems developed by the Romans to create large and impressive buildings with ceilings that span great distances. The building was lavishly decorated with marble veneer, fanciful mosaics, and monumental Greek marble statues.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34007\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"410\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160135\/2gh6iaqlsw6ziahkpcnc.png\" alt=\"This is the drawing of the Baths of Caracalla described in the caption.\" width=\"410\" height=\"506\" \/> <em><strong>Baths of Caracalla:<\/strong> This artist\u2019s reconstruction shows a groin-vaulted interior, Composite columns, and decorative panels on the ceiling. Human figures have been added for scale.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Quirinal Hill Serapeum<\/h3>\r\nIn 212, Caracalla erected a temple (called a Serapeum) on Quirinal Hill dedicated to the Egyptian god Serapis, a human-headed deity who shared Greek and Egyptian attributes. This Serapeum was, by most surviving accounts, the most sumptuous and architectonically ambitious of those built on the hill.\r\n\r\nThe temple covered over three acres. It was composed of a long courtyard (surrounded by a colonnade) and by the ritual area, where statues and obelisks were erected. Designed to impress its visitors, the temple boasted columns nearly 70 feet tall and over six feet in diameter, sitting atop a marble stairway that connected the base of the hill to the sanctuary.\r\n\r\nThe ruins of the Serapeum show a mixture of brick and concrete with regular use of the round arch. Symbolically, the temple signified the diversity that the Roman pantheon had reached by the third century.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34008\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"329\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/uotpzjkpsgoxzrbtktpx.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Ruins of Caracalla\u2019s Serapeum on the Quirinal Hill as described in the caption.\" width=\"329\" height=\"494\" \/> <em><strong>Ruins of Caracalla\u2019s Serapeum on the Quirinal Hill:<\/strong> The ruins of the Serapeum show a mixture of brick and concrete with regular use of the round arch.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Sculpture During the Decline of the Roman Empire<\/h2>\r\nThe Dominate Period, when warring generals controlled Rome, was a time marked by insecurity, anxiety, and a rapid succession of emperors. Emperor Caracalla was assassinated while campaigning against the Parthians in 217 CE. He was quickly succeeded by a member of his personal guard, Macrinus, who ruled for less than a year before his own death.\r\n\r\nElagabalus, the grandson of Julia Domna\u2019s sister, and his cousin Alexander Severus were the last in the Severan line. Both men managed to maintain control of Rome, and Alexander Severus was even able to improve the economic condition of the empire. Following Alexander\u2019s death at the hands of his own soldiers, Rome plunged into a long period of uneasy, rapid successions referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century, a crisis that lasted for fifty years.\r\n<h3>Soldier Emperors<\/h3>\r\nThe first 26 emperors of this period were generals who either proclaimed themselves or were officially acknowledged as the emperor. Their reigns lasted from a couple of months to a couple of years. The fact that they were all generals in the Roman army underscores the military insecurity of the empire at this time. Instead of protecting the border or trade routes, legions of soldiers were often fighting each other in support of one emperor or another. Since Roman power was still centred in Rome, the only building project that succeeded through this period was the building and maintaining of the city\u2019s Aurelian Wall, under the emperor Aurelian (c. 270\u2013275 CE). The portraits of Trajan Decius (c. 249\u2013251 CE) and Trebonianus Gallus (c. 252\u2013253 CE) serve to illustrate the instability of the period and the need for soldier-emperors to assert the power to maintain some semblance of control.\r\n<h3>Trajan Decius<\/h3>\r\nTrajan D\u2019s portrait at first seems to take its artistic style from Republican veristic portraiture, but a closer look reveals something else. Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor. His brow is furrowed with worry and wrinkles, and his eyes and mouth impart a feeling of fear and anguish.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10937\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"387\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160138\/s-decius-28mary-harrsch-29.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the portrait of Trajanus Decius, a man with a receding hairline and a lined face. His expression shows that he is anxious and concerned.\" width=\"387\" height=\"516\" \/> <em><strong>Trajanus Decius:<\/strong> Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Trebonianus Gallus<\/h3>\r\nThe portrait of his successor, Trebonianus Gallus takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero. This larger-than-life bronze statue depicts a muscled, nude man with his right arm raised in a gesture of speech. He seems to be in <em>orator pose<\/em>, addressing the troops or perhaps the people of Rome. His head is notably smaller than his torso and disproportional to his body. This places emphasis on his bulk and reminds the viewer of the emperor\u2019s power and the stability he hoped to create.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10938\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"631\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160141\/mma-bronze-03.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue of Trebonianus Gallus. It is a full-length standing nude statue. The body is large, bulky, and muscular. The head is disproportionately small.\" width=\"631\" height=\"947\" \/> <em><strong>Trebonianus Gallus:<\/strong> This portrait takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Late Antique Art: The Ludovisi Sarcophagus<\/h3>\r\nSculpture during this period demonstrates the style and design of Late Antique art that was initially developed during the late second-century CE from plebeian models. The emergence of the style corresponds with the social, political, and economic upheaval of the empire that began during the reign of Commodus. This style removes Classical conventions of realism. It pushes its characters into the foreground and almost entirely removes the background.\r\n\r\nIn the scenes shown on the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, the undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time-consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open-ended victory. It differs from earlier battle scenes on sarcophagi in which more shallowly carved figures are less convoluted and intertwined.\r\n\r\nUnlike earlier Roman depictions of warfare, this scene does not differentiate the general by his attire or engagement in battle. Rather, he is only slightly larger than the figures around him.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10939\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"607\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160144\/e-ludovisi-altemps-inv8574.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of the Ludovisi Sarcophagus. The panel relief depicts a densely populated Roman battle scene.\" width=\"607\" height=\"343\" \/> <em><strong>Ludovisi Sarcophagus:<\/strong> In the scenes shown on the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, the undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time-consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open-ended victory.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nFrom the late second century, Roman art increasingly depicted battles as chaotic, packed, single-plane scenes that emphasize dehumanized barbarians who are subjected mercilessly to Roman military might, at a time when in fact the Roman Empire was undergoing constant invasions from external threats that led to the fall of the empire in the West. Although armed, the barbarian warriors, usually identified as Goths, are depicted as helpless to defend themselves.\r\n<h3>After the Soldier Emperors<\/h3>\r\nThe Crisis of the Third Century continued after the reign of the Soldier Emperors as the title of emperor was auctioned off to the highest bidder by the Praetorian Guard and various men, not always generals, from around the empire seized power for brief periods of time. This process continued until the reign of Diocletian, beginning in 284 CE.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Imperial Sculpture Under the Tetrarchy<\/h2>\r\nDiocletian, a military general from the cavalry, was declared emperor by his legion in 284 CE. He re-established stability in the empire and paved the way for fourth-century political and social developments.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10941\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"599\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155601\/o-g.-dall-27orto-28-5-2006.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo shows a Portrait of Diocletian in a museum case. Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four.\" width=\"599\" height=\"799\" \/> <em><strong>Portrait of Diocletian:<\/strong> Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDiocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four. The Tetrarchy consisted of four emperors who reigned over two halves of the empire. Each pair of emperors was given control over either the eastern or western portion of the empire. Of the pair, one was given the title Caesar (a junior emperor) and the other Augustus (the senior emperor).\r\n\r\nThis allowed Diocletian and his fellow emperors to organize the administration of the provinces, separate military and civic command, and restore authority throughout the realm. They further solidified their commitment to each other and communal rule by marrying into each other\u2019s families.\r\n<h3>Portraits of the Tetrarchs<\/h3>\r\nImperial portraiture of the Tetrarchs depicts the four emperors together and looking nearly identical. The portraiture symbolizes the concept of co-rule and cohesiveness instead of the power of the individual. The idea of the Tetrarchy, which is apparent in their portraits, is based on the ideal of four men working together to establish peace and stability throughout the empire.\r\n\r\nThe medium of the famous porphyry sculpture of the Tetrarchs, originally from the city of Constantinople, represents the permanence of the emperors. Furthermore, the two pairs of rulers\u2014a Caesar and an Augustus with arms around each other\u2014 form a solid, stable block that reinforces the stability the Tetrarchy brought to the Roman Empire.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10940\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"610\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160147\/e2-80-93-the-tetrarchs-03.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Portrait of the Tetrarchs. The Portrait of the Tetrarchs is originally from Constantinople, but since the Middle Ages it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy.\" width=\"610\" height=\"915\" \/> <em><strong>Portrait of the Tetrarchs:<\/strong> Portrait of the Tetrarchs from Constantinople; since the Middle Ages, it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark\u2019s Basilica in Venice, Italy.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nStylistically, this portrait of the Tetrarchs is done in Late Antique style, which uses a distinct squat, formless bodies, square heads, and stylized clothing clearly seen in all four men. The Tetrarchs have almost no body. As opposed to Classical sculptures, which acknowledge the body beneath the attire, the clothes of the Tetrarchs form their bodies into chunky rectangles. Details such as the cuirass (breastplate), skirt, armour, and cloak are highly stylized and based on simple shapes and the repetition of lines. Despite the culmination of this artistic style, the rendering of the Tetrarchs in this manner seems to fit the connotations of Tetrarch rule and the need for stability throughout the empire.\r\n<h3>Portrait of Galerius<\/h3>\r\nGalerius served in the Tetrarchy from 293 to 311 CE, beginning his career as the Caesar of the West (293\u2013305) under Diocletian, and eventually rising to Augustus of the West (305\u2013311) after Diocletian\u2019s retirement. During his reign, he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid (Neo-Persian) Empire, and sacked their capital in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi (in present-day eastern Romania), and defeated them in 297 and 300. He opposed Christianity and oversaw the carrying out of the Diocletianic Persecution, which rescinded the rights of Christians and ordered that they comply with traditional Roman religious practices. However, toward the end of his reign in 311, he issued an edict of toleration.\r\n\r\nA porphyry bust of Galerius (c. 300 CE) shows the direction that portraiture was taking in the fourth century. This bust from the emperor\u2019s palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction. These attributes follow those of other sculptures of the Late Antique style and foreshadow the increasingly geometric form that facial features would assume in imperial portraiture and sculpture in general.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34010\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"410\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/0piimgwrz2lyuy3pguma.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Portrait Bust of Galerius. This bust from the emperor's palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction.\" width=\"410\" height=\"562\" \/> <em><strong>Portrait Bust of Galerius:<\/strong> This bust from the emperor\u2019s palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Diocletian\u2019s Palace<\/h2>\r\nDespite increasing abstraction in Late Antique sculpture, Diocletian\u2019s Palace maintains the tradition of Classicism in Roman architecture. Diocletian abdicated power in 305 CE and left the Tetrarchy to his co-emperors and Severus, the newly inaugurated general. Diocletian then retired to his boyhood palace in Dalmatia.\r\n\r\nThe palace\u2019s remains became the center of the modern city of Spilt in Croatia. Diocletian\u2019s Palace was built as a fortress, demonstrating that despite Diocletian\u2019s success as emperor, he still required security living in a hostile Roman environment. Despite the stylistic changes in sculpture, Diocletian\u2019s palace serves as a reminder that the style of Roman architecture continued to be based on Classical models and forms. In addition to its numerous round arches and Classical columns, the palace also contains a vestibule with a domed ceiling that has an oculus somewhat reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34023\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"373\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/aranw93qkyjvmvc85xpk.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the vestibule in Diocletian's Palace. It shows the domed ceiling with an oculus that shows the blue sky.\" width=\"373\" height=\"560\" \/> <em><strong>Vestibule:<\/strong> Note the domed ceiling with a wide oculus in Diocletian\u2019s Palace, in Split, Croatia, c. 305 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe palace was set up in a similar fashion to a castrum and contained courts, libraries, and other features found in imperial villas. It was constructed from local materials including limestone, marble, and brick. Some material for decoration was imported: Egyptian granite columns, fine marble for revetments, and some capitals produced in workshops in the Proconnesos (present-day Marmara Island off the coast of Turkey). The southern wall, which was the only unfortified part of the palace, was practically built on the waterfront and appeared to rise out of the Adriatic Sea.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34024\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"611\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/vrqtjqc4rxolvvcojrua.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a painting of Diocletian's Palace. It is an artist's reconstruction of the original structure. It depicts the palace, an irregular rectangle, with towers projecting from the western, northern, and eastern facades.\" width=\"611\" height=\"376\" \/> <em><strong>Diocletian\u2019s Palace:<\/strong> An artist\u2019s reconstruction of the original structure.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDiocletian\u2019s palace demonstrates the Roman use of vaults in the substructure and the use of columns, peristyles, and entablatures to create monumental spaces. For example, the central court of the palace, known as the [pb_glossary id=\"1160\"]peristyle[\/pb_glossary], demonstrates the stylistic and monumental use of these architectural elements.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, the central court was sunken and a flight of stairs enclosed the court and led up to the decorative peristyle and surrounding rooms. This increased the feeling of monumentality while emphasizing Diocletian\u2019s imperial power, as members of the court had to stand several steps below the entrances to the temples, mausoleum, and courtrooms.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34025\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"607\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/8o1ynu6oqegoak75maps.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Peristyle at Diocletian's Palace. The Peristyle is the central square of the palace, where the main entrance to Diocletian's quarters is located.\" width=\"607\" height=\"455\" \/> <em><strong>The Peristyle at Diocletian\u2019s Palace:<\/strong> The arcuated pediment is a rare feature in Roman architecture. Resting on four Composite columns, the pediment contains a round arch that rises into its base toward its apex.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nA main feature of the peristyle is the portico that marks the entrance to Diocletian\u2019s private apartments. Following the format of a traditional Roman temple to a degree, the portico rests atop a raised platform. Behind it rests a marble-faced brick wall with three entrances: an archway flanked by a rectangular portal on each side.\r\n\r\nPerhaps its most unique feature is the arcuated pediment that sits atop the temple facade. Resting on four Composite columns, the pediment contains a round arch that rises into its base toward its apex. An arcade supported by Composite columns stands to either side of the facade.\r\n\r\nThe northern half of the palace, divided into two parts by the cardo leading from the northern gate to the peristyle, is not as well preserved as the rest of the palace. Scholars posit that each part was a residential complex that housed soldiers, servants, and possibly some other facilities. Both parts were apparently surrounded by streets. Leading to the perimeter walls there were rectangular buildings that were possibly storage magazines.\r\n\r\nWhile the architectural aspects of the palace follow Roman traditions, several decorative choices hail from Egypt. Diocletian adorned his new home with numerous 3500-year-old granite sphinxes, originating from the site of Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. Only three have survived the centuries. One is still on the peristyle, the second sits headless in front of Jupiter\u2019s temple, and a third is in the city museum.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34026\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"581\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ooo0b761rliwvqhz3mnb.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the sphinx from the tomb of Thutmose III as described in the caption.\" width=\"581\" height=\"387\" \/> <em><strong>Sphinx from the tomb of Thutmose III:<\/strong> Diocletian adorned his new home with numerous 3500-year-old granite sphinxes, originating from the site of Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34027\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"349\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/k9ksxw4us8avkb3f23a5.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the headless sphinx in front of the Temple of Jupiter.\" width=\"349\" height=\"524\" \/> <em><strong>Headless sphinx in front of the Temple of Jupiter:<\/strong> Located in Diocletian\u2019s Palace in Split, Croatia, c. 305 CE.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Architecture Under Constantine<\/h2>\r\nConstantine seized sole power over Rome to establish authority and stability and then moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople. Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian abdicated power on May 1, 305 CE. However, over the course of the next five years, Maximian made several attempts to regain his title, and then committed suicide in 310. In the meantime, power passed to Maximian\u2019s son Maxentius and Constantine, the son of a third co-emperor, Constantius.\r\n\r\nUnfortunately for Diocletian\u2019s legacy and the stability created by the Tetrarchy, a power struggle between the two heirs erupted a year after the former Augustus\u2019 abdication. When Constantius died on July 25, 306 CE, his father\u2019s troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus in Eboracum (York, England).\r\n\r\nIn Rome, the favourite was Maxentius, who seized the title of emperor on October 28, 306 CE. Galerius, ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, recognized Constantine\u2019s claim and treated Maxentius as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Despite a mutiny against Galerius\u2019 co-emperor Severus in 307, and Galerius\u2019s subsequent failure to take Rome, Constantine managed to avoid conflict for most of this period. However, by 312, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostilities, culminating in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, in which Constantine emerged victorious.\r\n\r\nAlthough he attributed this victory to the aid of the Christian god, he did not convert to Christianity until he was on his deathbed. The following year, however, he enacted the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity and allowed its followers to begin building churches. With the Christian community growing in number and in influence, legalizing Christianity was, for Constantine, a pragmatic move.\r\n\r\nFollowing a rebellion from Licinius, his own co-emperor in 324 CE, Constantine eventually had his former colleague executed and consolidated power under a single ruler. As the sole emperor of an empire with new-found stability, Constantine was able to patronize large building projects in Rome. However, despite his attention to that city, he moved the capital of the empire east to the newly founded city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).\r\n<h3>Arch of Constantine<\/h3>\r\nThe Arch of Constantine demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture. This arch was erected between the Colosseum and Palatine Hill, the home of the imperial palace. It stands over the triumphal route before it enters the Republican Forum. This forms a dialogue with the Arch of Titus at the top, overlooking the Forum, and the Arch of Septimius Severus, which, in turn, stands at the other end of the Forum before the Via Sacra heads uphill to the Capitolium.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10948\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"591\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160150\/nstantine-arch-roma-2011-3.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Constantine.\" width=\"591\" height=\"390\" \/> <em><strong>Arch of Constantine:<\/strong> The Arch demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Senate commissioned the [pb_glossary id=\"1228\"]triumphal arch[\/pb_glossary] in honour of Constantine\u2019s victory over Maxentius. It is a triple arch and its iconography represents Constantine\u2019s supreme power and the stability and peace his reign brought to Rome. The Arch of Constantine is especially noted for its use of <em>spolia<\/em>: architectural and decorative elements removed from one monument for use on another. Those from the monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius\u2014all considered good emperors of the Pax Romana\u2014were reused as decoration.\r\n\r\nTrajanic panels that depict the emperor on horseback defeating barbarian soldiers adorn the interior of the central arch. The original face was reworked to take the likeness of Constantine. Eight roundels, or relief discs, adorn the space just above the two smaller side arches. These are Hadrianic and depict images of hunting and sacrifice.\r\n\r\nThe final set of <em>spolia<\/em> includes eight-panel reliefs on the arch\u2019s attic, from the era of Marcus Aurelius, depicting the dual identities of the emperor, as both a military and a civic leader. The incorporation of these elements symbolize Constantine\u2019s legitimacy and his status as one of the good emperors. The rest of the arch is decorated using Late Antique styles. The proximity of different artistic styles, under four different emperors, highlights the stylistic variations and artistic developments that occurred, both in the second century CE, as well as their differences to the Late Antique style.\r\n\r\nBesides the decorative elements in the spandrels, a Constantinian frieze runs around the arch, between the tops of the small arches and the bottoms of the roundels. This frieze highlights the artistic style of the period and chronologically depicts Constantine\u2019s rise to power. Unlike previous examples of Late Antique art, the bodies in this frieze are completely schematic and defined only by stiff, rigid clothes. In one scene, featuring Constantine distributing gifts, the emperor is centrally depicted and raised above his supporters on a throne.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10949\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"610\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160153\/friezenorth5.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a detail of the northern frieze of the Arch of Constantine as described in the caption.\" width=\"610\" height=\"359\" \/> <em><strong>A detail of the northern frieze of the Arch of Constantine:<\/strong> This detail shows Constantine distributing gifts from his throne down to his supporters.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Basilica Nova and the Colossus of Constantine<\/h3>\r\nWhen Constantine and Maxentius clashed at the Milvian Bridge, Maxentius was in the middle of building a grand basilica. It was eventually renamed the Basilica Nova, and was located near the Roman Forum. The basilica consisted of one side aisle on either side of a central [pb_glossary id=\"1293\"]nave[\/pb_glossary].\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10946\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"605\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160155\/ca-of-maxentius-floor-plan.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a diagram of the Basilica Nova, showing its ground plan. The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended above the floor on large piers, ending in an apse at the western end.\" width=\"605\" height=\"510\" \/> <em><strong>Basilica Nova:<\/strong> The ground plan of the Basilica Nova in Rome.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhen Constantine took over and completed the grand building, it was 300 feet long, 215 feet wide, and stood 115 feet tall down the nave. Concrete walls 15 feet thick supported the basilica\u2019s massive scale and expansive vaults. It was lavishly decorated with marble veneer and stucco. The southern end of the basilica was flanked by a porch, with an apse at the northern end.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10945\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"597\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160157\/roma-basilica-maxentius.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Basilica Nova as it stands today in Rome, Italy. It shows the three arches.\" width=\"597\" height=\"448\" \/> <em><strong>Basilica Nova:<\/strong> As it stands today in Rome, Italy.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe apse of the Basilica Nova was the location of the Colossus of Constantine. This [pb_glossary id=\"1236\"]colossus[\/pb_glossary] was built from many parts. The head, arms, hands, legs, and feet were carved from marble, while the body was built with a brick core and wooden framework and then gilded.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10947\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"576\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160200\/capitole-statueconstantin.jpeg\" alt=\"Photo of the giant sculpture of the head of the colossus of Constantine, depicted with large wide eyes and a strong jawline.\" width=\"576\" height=\"768\" \/> <em><strong>The head of the colossus of Constantine:<\/strong> The head is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nOnly parts of the Colossus remain, including the head that is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long. It shows a portrait of an individual with clearly defined features: a hooked nose, prominent jaw, and large eyes that look upwards. Like the porphyry bust of Galerius, Constantine\u2019s portrait combines naturalism in his nose, mouth, and chin with a growing sense of abstraction in his eyes and geometric hairstyle.\r\n\r\nHe also held an orb and, possibly, a sceptre, and one hand points upwards towards the heavens. Both the immensity of the scale and his depiction as Jupiter (seated, heroic, and semi-nude) inspire a feeling of awe and overwhelming power and authority. The basilica was a common Roman building and functioned as a multipurpose space for law courts, senate meetings, and business transactions. The form was appropriated for Christian worship and most churches, even today, still maintain this basic shape.\r\n<h3>Rome After Constantine<\/h3>\r\nFollowing Constantine\u2019s founding of a New Rome at Constantinople, the prominence and importance of the city of Rome diminished. The empire was then divided into east and west. The more prosperous eastern half of the empire continued to thrive, mainly due to its connection to important trade routes, while the western half of the empire fell apart. While Byzantium controlled Italy and the city of Rome at times over the next several centuries, for the most part, the Western Roman Empire, due to being less urban and less prosperous, was difficult to protect. Indeed, the city of Rome was sacked multiple times by invading armies, including the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, over the next century. The multiple sackings of Rome resulted in the raiding of the marble, facades, d\u00e9cor, and columns from the monuments and buildings of the city. Parts of ancient Rome, especially the Republican Forum, returned once again to the cow pastures that they originally were at the time of the city\u2019s founding, as floods from the Tiber washed them over in debris and sediment.\r\n<h3>Constantinople<\/h3>\r\nConstantine laid out a new square at the center of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate-house was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34030\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption \">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"434\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160202\/njggwr4zquezl87hxwo5.png\" alt=\"This is a map of the imperial district of Constantinople in present-day Istanbul, Turkey.\" width=\"434\" height=\"491\" \/> <em><strong>The Imperial district of Constantinople:<\/strong> Present-day Istanbul, Turkey.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe Mese, a great street lined with colonnades, led from the Augustaeum. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate house and a high column with a statue of Constantine in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34032\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty and declared himself a son of Marcus Aurelius to legitimize his reign and depicted himself in the fashion of the last good emperor.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome visually relates to the triumphal arches of the city, especially the triple arch of Augustus, not only by commemorating a victory over the Parthians but by also using similar narrative conventions to establish Severan authority.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, the emperor\u2019s hometown, is a unique four-sided arch that demonstrates both the new style of the Late Antique as well as the triumphal events of Septimius Severus\u2019s victory over the Parthians that occurred in Rome.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Baths of Caracalla were his major building program in Rome as a gift to the Roman people. The baths demonstrate the impressive and expansive use of Roman concrete, vaults, and architectural design.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Caracalla\u2019s commission of a Serapeum, dedicated to an Egyptian god with Greek attributes, on the Quirinal Hill highlights the diversity reached in the Roman pantheon by the third century.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Portraits of the soldier emperors reflect the anxiety and fear the men probably felt with their lives in peril. The need to depict oneself as heroic, strong, and firm is also evident.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Crisis of the Third Century saw over twenty-five men claim the title of emperor and assume power over the empire.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sculpture during this time fully develops into the Late Antique style, which derives from second century CE plebeian art. An early instance of its use is seen on the Arches of Septimius Severus.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Late Antique style becomes simple, less realistic, and rejects the use of Classical conventions that focused on naturalism and the proper rendering of the body and clothing in favour of simplicity and heavy, angular lines, squat bodies, and incised details.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Diocletian reigned from 284 to 305 CE as an individual emperor and as a member of the Tetrarchy.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Tetrarchy, or rule of four, was established by Diocletian as a means to administrate the empire more effectively. The four chosen men were given the title of Augustus for the senior emperor, or Caesar to designate the junior emperor.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Portraits of the Tetrarchs depict four nearly identical men standing with their arms around each other to represent their solidarity, authority, and the stability that their reign brought to the empire.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Diocletian\u2019s palace features numerous traditional attributes of Roman architecture, including Composite columns, round arches, and a domed ceiling with an oculus.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The arcuated pediment in the Peristyle is a rare attribute in Roman architecture.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Constantine reigned from 306 to 337 CE. He managed to re-establish stability in the empire and rule as a single emperor, legalize Christianity, and move the imperial capital to the newly-formed city of Constantinople.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Arch of Constantine, a triumphal arch commemorating Constantine\u2019s victory over Maxentius, makes use of spolia from monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Constantine completed the Basilica Nova, the construction of which was begun by his rival, Maxentius. This massive concrete building displayed the impressive power and authority of Constantine.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At one end of the Basilica Nova sat the Colossus of Constantine: over 40 feet tall and made of marble, brick, wood frames, and bronze gilding. The Colossus further emphasized the sole authority, control, and power held by Constantine.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdapted from <strong>\"Boundless Art History\" <\/strong>https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-nervan-antonines\/\u00a0<strong>License: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h3>The Late Empire<\/h3>\n<div class=\"wrapper\">\n<div id=\"wrap\">\n<div id=\"content\" role=\"main\">\n<div id=\"post-1766\" class=\"standard post-1766 chapter type-chapter status-publish hentry\">\n<div>\n<div>\n<p>The Severan Dynasty was the last stable period of imperial reign over the Roman Empire until that of Constantine.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"entry-content\">\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key Late Empire works<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Define critical terms related to Late Empire art<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Contrast the Late Antique style with earlier Classical conventions<\/li>\n<li>Define the Tetrarchy as seen during Diocletian\u2019s rule<\/li>\n<li>Identify the actions and works of art that Constantine is most noted for<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The assassination of Commodus in 192 CE once again plunged the Roman Empire into a year of civil war. Five generals succeeded one another until the fifth, Septimius Severus, consolidated power and managed to reign over Rome until his death from illness, 19 years later in 211 CE. He established the Severan Dynasty that reigned until 235 CE, overseen by five different emperors. Unfortunately for Rome, the economy and the bureaucratic and administrative power of the Emperor and the Senate were declining during this time. The five Severan emperors faced great difficulties maintaining control over the empire. Their troubles demonstrate the importance of this pivotal period that ultimately led to Rome\u2019s decline.<\/p>\n<h3>Septimius Severus<\/h3>\n<p>To strengthen his claim as emperor, Septimius Severus declared himself to be the secret son of Marcus Aurelius and even had his portrait fashioned in a similar manner to him. Like Marcus Aurelius, Septimius Severus wore his beard thick and curly in the style of Greek philosophers. His portraits show him as old, but fit and without the winkles of wisdom seen in Republican <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1216\">veristic<\/a> portraiture.<\/p>\n<h3>Triumphal Arches of Septimius Severus<\/h3>\n<p>Two triumphal arches commissioned by Septimius Severus still stand today: the first at the northwest entrance to the Roman Forum, and the second on the main road leading into the city of Leptis Magna, the Roman colony in modern Libya where Septimius Severus was born. Both were erected in 203 CE and commemorate the emperor\u2019s victory over the Parthians.<\/p>\n<p>The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus recalls the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1228\">triumphal arch<\/a> of Augustus, also erected to honour his own victory over the Parthians. Like Augustus\u2019 arch, that of Septimius is a triple arch\u2014the only surviving one in Rome. Decorative panels depict scenes of conquest echoing the military scenes on the Columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius. These, however, depart from the Classical style, stylistically resembling more the figures on the Column of Marcus Aurelius. The figures on the panels are carved in high relief, and each shows multiple scenes. Small <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1018\">friezes<\/a> recounting the triumphal procession also frame the panels. Other decorative elements include winged victories in the spandrels and two sets of four columns, one on each side, that frame the archways.<\/p>\n<p>The columns are free-standing, decorative additions to the arch. On the pedestal of each are reliefs of Romans leading captive Parthians away. This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that stood in the Roman Forum and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severus\u2019 imperial rule and the momentum of the empire.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10932\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 571px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160125\/sza-sewera-detal-1dscf0006.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph shows a panel relief between two flutes columns.\" width=\"571\" height=\"428\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Arch of Septimius Severus: <\/strong>Detail of a panel relief.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10931\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 623px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160127\/h-of-septimus-severus-east.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Roman Arch of Septimius Severus.\" width=\"623\" height=\"467\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Roman Arch of Septimius Severus:<\/strong> This arch visually recalls the triumphal arches of the past that stood in the Roman Forum and expresses the continuity of Septimius Severus\u2019 imperial rule and the momentum of the empire.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Arch of Septimius Severus at Leptis Magna is architecturally distinct and unique in comparison to the triumphal arches of Rome. This arch is four-sided and acts as a gateway into the city. <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1719\">Corinthian<\/a> columns, eight in total, stand at each corner and support a broken pediment, a common architectural feature in the North African and Eastern provinces. Despite its very different design, the arch\u2019s components are in dialogue with the triumphal arch in Rome. Depictions of war spoils and captive barbarians line the interior of the arches and a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1018\">frieze<\/a> wraps around them, depicting the triumphal procession that occurred in Rome. This frieze is both a portrayal of the actual triumph that Septimius Severus enjoyed as well as a mythical presentation, as gods and personifications are also present in the procession and at the sacrifice that followed.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10933\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 563px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160130\/a-arch-of-septimus-severus.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Septimius Severus.\" width=\"563\" height=\"845\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Arch of Septimius Severus:<\/strong> The arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Most importantly, the arch at Leptis Magnus demonstrates the emerging artistic style of the second century CE and Late Antiquity. The figures in the frieze are squat and square. The limbs are thick, and their clothing is stylistically rendered with incised lines that give no indication of the body underneath. It is a complete displacement of the Classical style that dominated Roman art during the previous three centuries<\/p>\n<h3>Baths of Caracalla<\/h3>\n<p>Caracalla was one of the last emperors of the century who had the time, resources, and power to build in the city of Rome. His longest-lasting contribution is a large bath complex that stands to the southeast of Rome\u2019s center. It covered over 33 acres and could hold over 1,600 bathers at a time. Bathing was an important part of Roman daily life, and the baths were a place for leisure, business, socializing, exercising, learning, and illicit affairs. These baths not only held the traditional bathing pools but also exercise courts, changing rooms, and Greek and Latin libraries. A Mithraeum has also been found on the site.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10934\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 651px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160132\/caracalla-grundriss.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a diagram of the Baths of Caracalla. It shows the main entrance, the great court, and the baths themselves, consisting of a central frigidarium (cold room) under three groin vaults, a double pool tepidarium, and a caldarium (hot room), as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing were practiced). The north end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool.\" width=\"651\" height=\"431\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Baths of Caracalla:<\/strong> A reconstructed ground plan of this vast complex.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Architecturally, the Baths of Caracalla demonstrate the impressive mastery of Roman building and the importance of concrete and the vaulting systems developed by the Romans to create large and impressive buildings with ceilings that span great distances. The building was lavishly decorated with marble veneer, fanciful mosaics, and monumental Greek marble statues.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34007\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160135\/2gh6iaqlsw6ziahkpcnc.png\" alt=\"This is the drawing of the Baths of Caracalla described in the caption.\" width=\"410\" height=\"506\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Baths of Caracalla:<\/strong> This artist\u2019s reconstruction shows a groin-vaulted interior, Composite columns, and decorative panels on the ceiling. Human figures have been added for scale.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Quirinal Hill Serapeum<\/h3>\n<p>In 212, Caracalla erected a temple (called a Serapeum) on Quirinal Hill dedicated to the Egyptian god Serapis, a human-headed deity who shared Greek and Egyptian attributes. This Serapeum was, by most surviving accounts, the most sumptuous and architectonically ambitious of those built on the hill.<\/p>\n<p>The temple covered over three acres. It was composed of a long courtyard (surrounded by a colonnade) and by the ritual area, where statues and obelisks were erected. Designed to impress its visitors, the temple boasted columns nearly 70 feet tall and over six feet in diameter, sitting atop a marble stairway that connected the base of the hill to the sanctuary.<\/p>\n<p>The ruins of the Serapeum show a mixture of brick and concrete with regular use of the round arch. Symbolically, the temple signified the diversity that the Roman pantheon had reached by the third century.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34008\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 329px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/uotpzjkpsgoxzrbtktpx.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Ruins of Caracalla\u2019s Serapeum on the Quirinal Hill as described in the caption.\" width=\"329\" height=\"494\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Ruins of Caracalla\u2019s Serapeum on the Quirinal Hill:<\/strong> The ruins of the Serapeum show a mixture of brick and concrete with regular use of the round arch.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Sculpture During the Decline of the Roman Empire<\/h2>\n<p>The Dominate Period, when warring generals controlled Rome, was a time marked by insecurity, anxiety, and a rapid succession of emperors. Emperor Caracalla was assassinated while campaigning against the Parthians in 217 CE. He was quickly succeeded by a member of his personal guard, Macrinus, who ruled for less than a year before his own death.<\/p>\n<p>Elagabalus, the grandson of Julia Domna\u2019s sister, and his cousin Alexander Severus were the last in the Severan line. Both men managed to maintain control of Rome, and Alexander Severus was even able to improve the economic condition of the empire. Following Alexander\u2019s death at the hands of his own soldiers, Rome plunged into a long period of uneasy, rapid successions referred to as the Crisis of the Third Century, a crisis that lasted for fifty years.<\/p>\n<h3>Soldier Emperors<\/h3>\n<p>The first 26 emperors of this period were generals who either proclaimed themselves or were officially acknowledged as the emperor. Their reigns lasted from a couple of months to a couple of years. The fact that they were all generals in the Roman army underscores the military insecurity of the empire at this time. Instead of protecting the border or trade routes, legions of soldiers were often fighting each other in support of one emperor or another. Since Roman power was still centred in Rome, the only building project that succeeded through this period was the building and maintaining of the city\u2019s Aurelian Wall, under the emperor Aurelian (c. 270\u2013275 CE). The portraits of Trajan Decius (c. 249\u2013251 CE) and Trebonianus Gallus (c. 252\u2013253 CE) serve to illustrate the instability of the period and the need for soldier-emperors to assert the power to maintain some semblance of control.<\/p>\n<h3>Trajan Decius<\/h3>\n<p>Trajan D\u2019s portrait at first seems to take its artistic style from Republican veristic portraiture, but a closer look reveals something else. Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor. His brow is furrowed with worry and wrinkles, and his eyes and mouth impart a feeling of fear and anguish.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10937\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 387px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160138\/s-decius-28mary-harrsch-29.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the portrait of Trajanus Decius, a man with a receding hairline and a lined face. His expression shows that he is anxious and concerned.\" width=\"387\" height=\"516\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Trajanus Decius:<\/strong> Instead of depicting a hyper-realistic portrait of an old and wise man, this portrait reveals the anxiety and nervousness of the emperor.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Trebonianus Gallus<\/h3>\n<p>The portrait of his successor, Trebonianus Gallus takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero. This larger-than-life bronze statue depicts a muscled, nude man with his right arm raised in a gesture of speech. He seems to be in <em>orator pose<\/em>, addressing the troops or perhaps the people of Rome. His head is notably smaller than his torso and disproportional to his body. This places emphasis on his bulk and reminds the viewer of the emperor\u2019s power and the stability he hoped to create.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10938\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 631px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160141\/mma-bronze-03.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the statue of Trebonianus Gallus. It is a full-length standing nude statue. The body is large, bulky, and muscular. The head is disproportionately small.\" width=\"631\" height=\"947\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Trebonianus Gallus:<\/strong> This portrait takes a different style, relying on old sculpture and narrative conventions to depict the emperor as a contemporary hero.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Late Antique Art: The Ludovisi Sarcophagus<\/h3>\n<p>Sculpture during this period demonstrates the style and design of Late Antique art that was initially developed during the late second-century CE from plebeian models. The emergence of the style corresponds with the social, political, and economic upheaval of the empire that began during the reign of Commodus. This style removes Classical conventions of realism. It pushes its characters into the foreground and almost entirely removes the background.<\/p>\n<p>In the scenes shown on the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, the undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time-consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open-ended victory. It differs from earlier battle scenes on sarcophagi in which more shallowly carved figures are less convoluted and intertwined.<\/p>\n<p>Unlike earlier Roman depictions of warfare, this scene does not differentiate the general by his attire or engagement in battle. Rather, he is only slightly larger than the figures around him.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10939\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 607px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160144\/e-ludovisi-altemps-inv8574.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a closeup photo of the Ludovisi Sarcophagus. The panel relief depicts a densely populated Roman battle scene.\" width=\"607\" height=\"343\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Ludovisi Sarcophagus:<\/strong> In the scenes shown on the Ludovisi Sarcophagus, the undercutting of the deep relief exhibits virtuosic and very time-consuming drill work that conveys chaos and a sense of weary, open-ended victory.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>From the late second century, Roman art increasingly depicted battles as chaotic, packed, single-plane scenes that emphasize dehumanized barbarians who are subjected mercilessly to Roman military might, at a time when in fact the Roman Empire was undergoing constant invasions from external threats that led to the fall of the empire in the West. Although armed, the barbarian warriors, usually identified as Goths, are depicted as helpless to defend themselves.<\/p>\n<h3>After the Soldier Emperors<\/h3>\n<p>The Crisis of the Third Century continued after the reign of the Soldier Emperors as the title of emperor was auctioned off to the highest bidder by the Praetorian Guard and various men, not always generals, from around the empire seized power for brief periods of time. This process continued until the reign of Diocletian, beginning in 284 CE.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Imperial Sculpture Under the Tetrarchy<\/h2>\n<p>Diocletian, a military general from the cavalry, was declared emperor by his legion in 284 CE. He re-established stability in the empire and paved the way for fourth-century political and social developments.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10941\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 599px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31155601\/o-g.-dall-27orto-28-5-2006.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo shows a Portrait of Diocletian in a museum case. Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four.\" width=\"599\" height=\"799\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Portrait of Diocletian:<\/strong> Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Diocletian achieved stability by establishing the Tetrarchy, Greek for rule by four. The Tetrarchy consisted of four emperors who reigned over two halves of the empire. Each pair of emperors was given control over either the eastern or western portion of the empire. Of the pair, one was given the title Caesar (a junior emperor) and the other Augustus (the senior emperor).<\/p>\n<p>This allowed Diocletian and his fellow emperors to organize the administration of the provinces, separate military and civic command, and restore authority throughout the realm. They further solidified their commitment to each other and communal rule by marrying into each other\u2019s families.<\/p>\n<h3>Portraits of the Tetrarchs<\/h3>\n<p>Imperial portraiture of the Tetrarchs depicts the four emperors together and looking nearly identical. The portraiture symbolizes the concept of co-rule and cohesiveness instead of the power of the individual. The idea of the Tetrarchy, which is apparent in their portraits, is based on the ideal of four men working together to establish peace and stability throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<p>The medium of the famous porphyry sculpture of the Tetrarchs, originally from the city of Constantinople, represents the permanence of the emperors. Furthermore, the two pairs of rulers\u2014a Caesar and an Augustus with arms around each other\u2014 form a solid, stable block that reinforces the stability the Tetrarchy brought to the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10940\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160147\/e2-80-93-the-tetrarchs-03.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Portrait of the Tetrarchs. The Portrait of the Tetrarchs is originally from Constantinople, but since the Middle Ages it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy.\" width=\"610\" height=\"915\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Portrait of the Tetrarchs:<\/strong> Portrait of the Tetrarchs from Constantinople; since the Middle Ages, it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark\u2019s Basilica in Venice, Italy.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Stylistically, this portrait of the Tetrarchs is done in Late Antique style, which uses a distinct squat, formless bodies, square heads, and stylized clothing clearly seen in all four men. The Tetrarchs have almost no body. As opposed to Classical sculptures, which acknowledge the body beneath the attire, the clothes of the Tetrarchs form their bodies into chunky rectangles. Details such as the cuirass (breastplate), skirt, armour, and cloak are highly stylized and based on simple shapes and the repetition of lines. Despite the culmination of this artistic style, the rendering of the Tetrarchs in this manner seems to fit the connotations of Tetrarch rule and the need for stability throughout the empire.<\/p>\n<h3>Portrait of Galerius<\/h3>\n<p>Galerius served in the Tetrarchy from 293 to 311 CE, beginning his career as the Caesar of the West (293\u2013305) under Diocletian, and eventually rising to Augustus of the West (305\u2013311) after Diocletian\u2019s retirement. During his reign, he campaigned, aided by Diocletian, against the Sassanid (Neo-Persian) Empire, and sacked their capital in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi (in present-day eastern Romania), and defeated them in 297 and 300. He opposed Christianity and oversaw the carrying out of the Diocletianic Persecution, which rescinded the rights of Christians and ordered that they comply with traditional Roman religious practices. However, toward the end of his reign in 311, he issued an edict of toleration.<\/p>\n<p>A porphyry bust of Galerius (c. 300 CE) shows the direction that portraiture was taking in the fourth century. This bust from the emperor\u2019s palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction. These attributes follow those of other sculptures of the Late Antique style and foreshadow the increasingly geometric form that facial features would assume in imperial portraiture and sculpture in general.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34010\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 410px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/0piimgwrz2lyuy3pguma.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Portrait Bust of Galerius. This bust from the emperor's palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction.\" width=\"410\" height=\"562\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Portrait Bust of Galerius:<\/strong> This bust from the emperor\u2019s palace features a face that is largely naturalistic with large expressive eyes and eyebrows, similar to those on the group portrait of the Tetrarchs, that lean toward abstraction.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Diocletian\u2019s Palace<\/h2>\n<p>Despite increasing abstraction in Late Antique sculpture, Diocletian\u2019s Palace maintains the tradition of Classicism in Roman architecture. Diocletian abdicated power in 305 CE and left the Tetrarchy to his co-emperors and Severus, the newly inaugurated general. Diocletian then retired to his boyhood palace in Dalmatia.<\/p>\n<p>The palace\u2019s remains became the center of the modern city of Spilt in Croatia. Diocletian\u2019s Palace was built as a fortress, demonstrating that despite Diocletian\u2019s success as emperor, he still required security living in a hostile Roman environment. Despite the stylistic changes in sculpture, Diocletian\u2019s palace serves as a reminder that the style of Roman architecture continued to be based on Classical models and forms. In addition to its numerous round arches and Classical columns, the palace also contains a vestibule with a domed ceiling that has an oculus somewhat reminiscent of the Pantheon in Rome.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34023\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 373px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/aranw93qkyjvmvc85xpk.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the vestibule in Diocletian's Palace. It shows the domed ceiling with an oculus that shows the blue sky.\" width=\"373\" height=\"560\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Vestibule:<\/strong> Note the domed ceiling with a wide oculus in Diocletian\u2019s Palace, in Split, Croatia, c. 305 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The palace was set up in a similar fashion to a castrum and contained courts, libraries, and other features found in imperial villas. It was constructed from local materials including limestone, marble, and brick. Some material for decoration was imported: Egyptian granite columns, fine marble for revetments, and some capitals produced in workshops in the Proconnesos (present-day Marmara Island off the coast of Turkey). The southern wall, which was the only unfortified part of the palace, was practically built on the waterfront and appeared to rise out of the Adriatic Sea.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34024\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 611px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/vrqtjqc4rxolvvcojrua.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a painting of Diocletian's Palace. It is an artist's reconstruction of the original structure. It depicts the palace, an irregular rectangle, with towers projecting from the western, northern, and eastern facades.\" width=\"611\" height=\"376\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Diocletian\u2019s Palace:<\/strong> An artist\u2019s reconstruction of the original structure.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Diocletian\u2019s palace demonstrates the Roman use of vaults in the substructure and the use of columns, peristyles, and entablatures to create monumental spaces. For example, the central court of the palace, known as the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1160\">peristyle<\/a>, demonstrates the stylistic and monumental use of these architectural elements.<\/p>\n<p>Furthermore, the central court was sunken and a flight of stairs enclosed the court and led up to the decorative peristyle and surrounding rooms. This increased the feeling of monumentality while emphasizing Diocletian\u2019s imperial power, as members of the court had to stand several steps below the entrances to the temples, mausoleum, and courtrooms.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34025\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 607px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/8o1ynu6oqegoak75maps.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Peristyle at Diocletian's Palace. The Peristyle is the central square of the palace, where the main entrance to Diocletian's quarters is located.\" width=\"607\" height=\"455\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Peristyle at Diocletian\u2019s Palace:<\/strong> The arcuated pediment is a rare feature in Roman architecture. Resting on four Composite columns, the pediment contains a round arch that rises into its base toward its apex.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>A main feature of the peristyle is the portico that marks the entrance to Diocletian\u2019s private apartments. Following the format of a traditional Roman temple to a degree, the portico rests atop a raised platform. Behind it rests a marble-faced brick wall with three entrances: an archway flanked by a rectangular portal on each side.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps its most unique feature is the arcuated pediment that sits atop the temple facade. Resting on four Composite columns, the pediment contains a round arch that rises into its base toward its apex. An arcade supported by Composite columns stands to either side of the facade.<\/p>\n<p>The northern half of the palace, divided into two parts by the cardo leading from the northern gate to the peristyle, is not as well preserved as the rest of the palace. Scholars posit that each part was a residential complex that housed soldiers, servants, and possibly some other facilities. Both parts were apparently surrounded by streets. Leading to the perimeter walls there were rectangular buildings that were possibly storage magazines.<\/p>\n<p>While the architectural aspects of the palace follow Roman traditions, several decorative choices hail from Egypt. Diocletian adorned his new home with numerous 3500-year-old granite sphinxes, originating from the site of Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III. Only three have survived the centuries. One is still on the peristyle, the second sits headless in front of Jupiter\u2019s temple, and a third is in the city museum.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34026\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 581px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/ooo0b761rliwvqhz3mnb.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the sphinx from the tomb of Thutmose III as described in the caption.\" width=\"581\" height=\"387\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Sphinx from the tomb of Thutmose III:<\/strong> Diocletian adorned his new home with numerous 3500-year-old granite sphinxes, originating from the site of Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34027\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 349px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/k9ksxw4us8avkb3f23a5.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the headless sphinx in front of the Temple of Jupiter.\" width=\"349\" height=\"524\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Headless sphinx in front of the Temple of Jupiter:<\/strong> Located in Diocletian\u2019s Palace in Split, Croatia, c. 305 CE.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Architecture Under Constantine<\/h2>\n<p>Constantine seized sole power over Rome to establish authority and stability and then moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople. Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian abdicated power on May 1, 305 CE. However, over the course of the next five years, Maximian made several attempts to regain his title, and then committed suicide in 310. In the meantime, power passed to Maximian\u2019s son Maxentius and Constantine, the son of a third co-emperor, Constantius.<\/p>\n<p>Unfortunately for Diocletian\u2019s legacy and the stability created by the Tetrarchy, a power struggle between the two heirs erupted a year after the former Augustus\u2019 abdication. When Constantius died on July 25, 306 CE, his father\u2019s troops proclaimed Constantine as Augustus in Eboracum (York, England).<\/p>\n<p>In Rome, the favourite was Maxentius, who seized the title of emperor on October 28, 306 CE. Galerius, ruler of the Eastern provinces and the senior emperor in the Empire, recognized Constantine\u2019s claim and treated Maxentius as a usurper. Galerius, however, recognized Constantine as holding only the lesser imperial rank of Caesar. Despite a mutiny against Galerius\u2019 co-emperor Severus in 307, and Galerius\u2019s subsequent failure to take Rome, Constantine managed to avoid conflict for most of this period. However, by 312, Constantine and Maxentius were engaged in open hostilities, culminating in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, in which Constantine emerged victorious.<\/p>\n<p>Although he attributed this victory to the aid of the Christian god, he did not convert to Christianity until he was on his deathbed. The following year, however, he enacted the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity and allowed its followers to begin building churches. With the Christian community growing in number and in influence, legalizing Christianity was, for Constantine, a pragmatic move.<\/p>\n<p>Following a rebellion from Licinius, his own co-emperor in 324 CE, Constantine eventually had his former colleague executed and consolidated power under a single ruler. As the sole emperor of an empire with new-found stability, Constantine was able to patronize large building projects in Rome. However, despite his attention to that city, he moved the capital of the empire east to the newly founded city of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul).<\/p>\n<h3>Arch of Constantine<\/h3>\n<p>The Arch of Constantine demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture. This arch was erected between the Colosseum and Palatine Hill, the home of the imperial palace. It stands over the triumphal route before it enters the Republican Forum. This forms a dialogue with the Arch of Titus at the top, overlooking the Forum, and the Arch of Septimius Severus, which, in turn, stands at the other end of the Forum before the Via Sacra heads uphill to the Capitolium.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10948\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 591px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160150\/nstantine-arch-roma-2011-3.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a current-day photo of the Arch of Constantine.\" width=\"591\" height=\"390\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Arch of Constantine:<\/strong> The Arch demonstrates the continuance of the newly-adopted artistic style for imperial sculpture.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Senate commissioned the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1228\">triumphal arch<\/a> in honour of Constantine\u2019s victory over Maxentius. It is a triple arch and its iconography represents Constantine\u2019s supreme power and the stability and peace his reign brought to Rome. The Arch of Constantine is especially noted for its use of <em>spolia<\/em>: architectural and decorative elements removed from one monument for use on another. Those from the monuments of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius\u2014all considered good emperors of the Pax Romana\u2014were reused as decoration.<\/p>\n<p>Trajanic panels that depict the emperor on horseback defeating barbarian soldiers adorn the interior of the central arch. The original face was reworked to take the likeness of Constantine. Eight roundels, or relief discs, adorn the space just above the two smaller side arches. These are Hadrianic and depict images of hunting and sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>The final set of <em>spolia<\/em> includes eight-panel reliefs on the arch\u2019s attic, from the era of Marcus Aurelius, depicting the dual identities of the emperor, as both a military and a civic leader. The incorporation of these elements symbolize Constantine\u2019s legitimacy and his status as one of the good emperors. The rest of the arch is decorated using Late Antique styles. The proximity of different artistic styles, under four different emperors, highlights the stylistic variations and artistic developments that occurred, both in the second century CE, as well as their differences to the Late Antique style.<\/p>\n<p>Besides the decorative elements in the spandrels, a Constantinian frieze runs around the arch, between the tops of the small arches and the bottoms of the roundels. This frieze highlights the artistic style of the period and chronologically depicts Constantine\u2019s rise to power. Unlike previous examples of Late Antique art, the bodies in this frieze are completely schematic and defined only by stiff, rigid clothes. In one scene, featuring Constantine distributing gifts, the emperor is centrally depicted and raised above his supporters on a throne.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10949\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 610px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160153\/friezenorth5.jpeg\" alt=\"This photo shows a detail of the northern frieze of the Arch of Constantine as described in the caption.\" width=\"610\" height=\"359\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>A detail of the northern frieze of the Arch of Constantine:<\/strong> This detail shows Constantine distributing gifts from his throne down to his supporters.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Basilica Nova and the Colossus of Constantine<\/h3>\n<p>When Constantine and Maxentius clashed at the Milvian Bridge, Maxentius was in the middle of building a grand basilica. It was eventually renamed the Basilica Nova, and was located near the Roman Forum. The basilica consisted of one side aisle on either side of a central <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1293\">nave<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10946\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 605px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160155\/ca-of-maxentius-floor-plan.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a diagram of the Basilica Nova, showing its ground plan. The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended above the floor on large piers, ending in an apse at the western end.\" width=\"605\" height=\"510\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Basilica Nova:<\/strong> The ground plan of the Basilica Nova in Rome.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>When Constantine took over and completed the grand building, it was 300 feet long, 215 feet wide, and stood 115 feet tall down the nave. Concrete walls 15 feet thick supported the basilica\u2019s massive scale and expansive vaults. It was lavishly decorated with marble veneer and stucco. The southern end of the basilica was flanked by a porch, with an apse at the northern end.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10945\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 597px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160157\/roma-basilica-maxentius.jpeg\" alt=\"This is a photo of the Basilica Nova as it stands today in Rome, Italy. It shows the three arches.\" width=\"597\" height=\"448\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Basilica Nova:<\/strong> As it stands today in Rome, Italy.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The apse of the Basilica Nova was the location of the Colossus of Constantine. This <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_790_1236\">colossus<\/a> was built from many parts. The head, arms, hands, legs, and feet were carved from marble, while the body was built with a brick core and wooden framework and then gilded.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/10947\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 576px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160200\/capitole-statueconstantin.jpeg\" alt=\"Photo of the giant sculpture of the head of the colossus of Constantine, depicted with large wide eyes and a strong jawline.\" width=\"576\" height=\"768\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The head of the colossus of Constantine:<\/strong> The head is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Only parts of the Colossus remain, including the head that is over eight feet tall and 6.5 feet long. It shows a portrait of an individual with clearly defined features: a hooked nose, prominent jaw, and large eyes that look upwards. Like the porphyry bust of Galerius, Constantine\u2019s portrait combines naturalism in his nose, mouth, and chin with a growing sense of abstraction in his eyes and geometric hairstyle.<\/p>\n<p>He also held an orb and, possibly, a sceptre, and one hand points upwards towards the heavens. Both the immensity of the scale and his depiction as Jupiter (seated, heroic, and semi-nude) inspire a feeling of awe and overwhelming power and authority. The basilica was a common Roman building and functioned as a multipurpose space for law courts, senate meetings, and business transactions. The form was appropriated for Christian worship and most churches, even today, still maintain this basic shape.<\/p>\n<h3>Rome After Constantine<\/h3>\n<p>Following Constantine\u2019s founding of a New Rome at Constantinople, the prominence and importance of the city of Rome diminished. The empire was then divided into east and west. The more prosperous eastern half of the empire continued to thrive, mainly due to its connection to important trade routes, while the western half of the empire fell apart. While Byzantium controlled Italy and the city of Rome at times over the next several centuries, for the most part, the Western Roman Empire, due to being less urban and less prosperous, was difficult to protect. Indeed, the city of Rome was sacked multiple times by invading armies, including the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, over the next century. The multiple sackings of Rome resulted in the raiding of the marble, facades, d\u00e9cor, and columns from the monuments and buildings of the city. Parts of ancient Rome, especially the Republican Forum, returned once again to the cow pastures that they originally were at the time of the city\u2019s founding, as floods from the Tiber washed them over in debris and sediment.<\/p>\n<h3>Constantinople<\/h3>\n<p>Constantine laid out a new square at the center of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate-house was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34030\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-nocaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 434px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160202\/njggwr4zquezl87hxwo5.png\" alt=\"This is a map of the imperial district of Constantinople in present-day Istanbul, Turkey.\" width=\"434\" height=\"491\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Imperial district of Constantinople:<\/strong> Present-day Istanbul, Turkey.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The Mese, a great street lined with colonnades, led from the Augustaeum. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed the Praetorium or law-court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate house and a high column with a statue of Constantine in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34032\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty and declared himself a son of Marcus Aurelius to legitimize his reign and depicted himself in the fashion of the last good emperor.<\/li>\n<li>The Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome visually relates to the triumphal arches of the city, especially the triple arch of Augustus, not only by commemorating a victory over the Parthians but by also using similar narrative conventions to establish Severan authority.<\/li>\n<li>The Arch of Septimius Severus in Leptis Magna, the emperor\u2019s hometown, is a unique four-sided arch that demonstrates both the new style of the Late Antique as well as the triumphal events of Septimius Severus\u2019s victory over the Parthians that occurred in Rome.<\/li>\n<li>The Baths of Caracalla were his major building program in Rome as a gift to the Roman people. The baths demonstrate the impressive and expansive use of Roman concrete, vaults, and architectural design.<\/li>\n<li>Caracalla\u2019s commission of a Serapeum, dedicated to an Egyptian god with Greek attributes, on the Quirinal Hill highlights the diversity reached in the Roman pantheon by the third century.<\/li>\n<li>Portraits of the soldier emperors reflect the anxiety and fear the men probably felt with their lives in peril. The need to depict oneself as heroic, strong, and firm is also evident.<\/li>\n<li>The Crisis of the Third Century saw over twenty-five men claim the title of emperor and assume power over the empire.<\/li>\n<li>Sculpture during this time fully develops into the Late Antique style, which derives from second century CE plebeian art. An early instance of its use is seen on the Arches of Septimius Severus.<\/li>\n<li>The Late Antique style becomes simple, less realistic, and rejects the use of Classical conventions that focused on naturalism and the proper rendering of the body and clothing in favour of simplicity and heavy, angular lines, squat bodies, and incised details.<\/li>\n<li>Diocletian reigned from 284 to 305 CE as an individual emperor and as a member of the Tetrarchy.<\/li>\n<li>The Tetrarchy, or rule of four, was established by Diocletian as a means to administrate the empire more effectively. The four chosen men were given the title of Augustus for the senior emperor, or Caesar to designate the junior emperor.<\/li>\n<li>Portraits of the Tetrarchs depict four nearly identical men standing with their arms around each other to represent their solidarity, authority, and the stability that their reign brought to the empire.<\/li>\n<li>Diocletian\u2019s palace features numerous traditional attributes of Roman architecture, including Composite columns, round arches, and a domed ceiling with an oculus.<\/li>\n<li>The arcuated pediment in the Peristyle is a rare attribute in Roman architecture.<\/li>\n<li>Constantine reigned from 306 to 337 CE. He managed to re-establish stability in the empire and rule as a single emperor, legalize Christianity, and move the imperial capital to the newly-formed city of Constantinople.<\/li>\n<li>The Arch of Constantine, a triumphal arch commemorating Constantine\u2019s victory over Maxentius, makes use of spolia from monuments dedicated to Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius.<\/li>\n<li>Constantine completed the Basilica Nova, the construction of which was begun by his rival, Maxentius. This massive concrete building displayed the impressive power and authority of Constantine.<\/li>\n<li>At one end of the Basilica Nova sat the Colossus of Constantine: over 40 feet tall and made of marble, brick, wood frames, and bronze gilding. The Colossus further emphasized the sole authority, control, and power held by Constantine.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adapted from <strong>&#8220;Boundless Art History&#8221; <\/strong>https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/the-nervan-antonines\/\u00a0<strong>License: <em><a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_790_1216\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1216\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Realistic; true to life. Also used to refer to the style of portraiture favoured during the Roman Republic in which the subjects were portrayed in a super-realistic likeness.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1228\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1228\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A monumental arch that commemorates a victory.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1018\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1018\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Any sculptured or richly ornamented band on a building.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1719\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1719\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Both the latest and the most elaborate of the Classical orders of architecture. A defining element is the elaborate, carved capital, decorated with Acanthus leaves.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1160\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1160\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An external colonnade surrounding the perimeter of a temple.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1293\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1293\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The middle or body of a church, extending from the transepts to the principal entrances.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_790_1236\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_790_1236\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A statue of gigantic proportions. The name was especially applied to certain famous statues in antiquity.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":961,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-790","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":774,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/790","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/961"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/790\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2083,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/790\/revisions\/2083"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/774"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/790\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=790"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=790"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=790"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=790"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}