{"id":885,"date":"2020-09-23T15:06:23","date_gmt":"2020-09-23T19:06:23","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=885"},"modified":"2021-01-30T18:06:19","modified_gmt":"2021-01-30T23:06:19","slug":"early-christian-art","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/chapter\/early-christian-art\/","title":{"raw":"Early Christian Art","rendered":"Early Christian Art"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n\r\nEarly Christian, or Paleochristian, art was created by Christians or under Christian patronage throughout the second and third centuries.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key early Christian works<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Define key terms related to early Christian art<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the influence of Greco-Roman culture on the development of early Christian art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain what replaced the Classical temple in Early Christian architecture and why it evolved<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Differentiate Early Christian sculpture from earlier Roman sculptural traditions<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h3>Early Christianity<\/h3>\r\nBy the early years of Christianity (first century), Judaism had been legalized through a compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Around the year 98, Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as a distinct religion. This opened the way to the persecutions of Christians for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the state pantheon.\r\n\r\nThe oppression of Christians was only periodic until the middle of the first century. However, large-scale persecutions began in the year 64 when Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome earlier that year. Early Christians continued to suffer sporadic persecutions. Because of their refusal to honour the Roman pantheon, which many believed brought misfortune upon the community, the local pagan populations put pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against their Christian neighbours. The last and most severe persecution organized by the imperial authorities was the Diocletianic Persecution from 303 to 311.\r\n<h3>Early Christian Art<\/h3>\r\nEarly Christian, or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, between 260 and 525. In practice, identifiably Christian art only survives from the second century onwards. After 550, Christian art is classified as Byzantine, or of some other regional type.\r\n\r\nIt is difficult to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the lower classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage or a small number of followers.\r\n\r\nThe Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven images (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) might have also constrained Christians from producing art. Christians could have made or purchased art with pagan iconography but given it Christian meanings. If this happened, \u201cChristian\u201d art would not be immediately recognizable as such.\r\n\r\nEarly Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts.\r\n\r\nEarly Christian art not only used Roman forms, but it also used Roman styles. Late Classical art included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space. The Late Classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include most examples of the earliest Christian art.\r\n\r\nEarly Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after the Edict of Milan of 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. The end of the period of Early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the fifth through seventh centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of Early Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is more often considered to end under Constantine, between 313 and 325.\r\n<h3>Early Christian Painting<\/h3>\r\nIn a move of strategic syncretism, the Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the \u201cGood Shepherd.\u201d Early Christians also developed their own iconography. Such symbols as the fish (<em>ikhthus)<\/em>, were not borrowed from pagan iconography.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34040\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"599\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/gie4hbxjsik3ijlcoheu.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of iconography from the Christian Catacombs. It depicts five loaves of bread and two fish, alluding to Jesus feeding the multitude.\" width=\"599\" height=\"412\" \/> <strong>Fish and Loaves:<\/strong> This fish-and-loaves fresco\u2014iconography particular to Christians and representative of the Eucharist\u2014is found in the Catacombs of San Callisto.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDuring the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late second to early fourth centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there might have been panel icons which have disappeared.\r\n<h3>Depictions of Jesus<\/h3>\r\nInitially, Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys, the peacock, the Lamb of God, or an anchor. Later, personified symbols were used, including Daniel in the lion\u2019s den, Orpheus charming the animals, or Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale prefigured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus. However, the depiction of Jesus was well-developed by the end of the pre-Constantinian period. He was typically shown in narrative scenes, with a preference for New Testament miracles, and a few scenes from his Passion. A variety of different types of appearance were used, including the thin, long-faced figure with long, centrally-parted hair that was later to become the norm. But in the earliest images as many show a stocky and short-haired beardless figure in a short tunic, who can only be identified by his context. In many images of miracles, Jesus carries a stick or wand, which he points at the subject of the miracle rather like a modern stage magician (though the wand is significantly larger).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34052\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"335\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/7ipc6etrrd6uyppwaonk.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"In this image, Jesus heals a bleeding woman. He stands above her wearing white robes and places a hand above her head. She kneels, appearing either to reach for him or to hold onto the hem of his robe.\" width=\"335\" height=\"446\" \/> <em><strong>Jesus Healing a Bleeding Woman:<\/strong> A typical depiction of Jesus for its time. This fresco shows a clean-shaven man with short hair. From the catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, c. 300\u2013350.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe image of The Good Shepherd, a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of\u00a0<em>kouroi\u00a0<\/em>figures in Greco-Roman art.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34037\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"241\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/nshizj8rogatju9yhehq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This image depicts a shepherd and two sheep by his side.\" width=\"241\" height=\"341\" \/> <em><strong>The Good\u00a0Shepherd:<\/strong> A fresco from the catacombs of San Callisto.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34039\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"241\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/iopxgajhr7uiyxmotdli.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This a photo of a fresco painting depicting the Good Shepherd.\" width=\"241\" height=\"350\" \/> <em><strong>The Good Shepherd:<\/strong> This painting of the Good Shepherd motif is a fusion of pagan and Christian symbolism.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe almost total absence from Christian paintings during the persecution period of the cross, except in the disguised form of the anchor, is notable. The cross, symbolizing Jesus\u2019s crucifixion, was not represented explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognized as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from the earliest days of the religion.\r\n<h3>House Church at Dura-Europos<\/h3>\r\nThe house church at Dura-Europos is the oldest known house church. One of the walls within the structure was inscribed with a date that was interpreted as 231. It was preserved when it was filled with earth to strengthen the city\u2019s fortifications against an attack by the Sassanians in 256 CE.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34035\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"532\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/n1jevihnsyf7dqtqouvt.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins as they stand today of a house church at Dura-Europos. It shows the chapel area on the right. The ruins are a sandy brown color.\" width=\"532\" height=\"399\" \/> <em><strong>Remains of a house church at Dura-Europos:<\/strong> House churches, where Christians congregated secretly, were common prior to the legalization of Christianity.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDespite the larger atmosphere of persecution, the artifacts found in the house church provide evidence of localized Roman tolerance for a Christian presence. This location housed frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus healing the sick.\r\n\r\nWhen Christianity emerged in the Late Antique world, Christian ceremony and worship were secretive. Before Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians suffered intermittent periods of persecution at the hands of the Romans. Therefore, Christian worship was purposefully kept as inconspicuous as possible. Rather than building prominent new structures to express religious use, Christians in the Late Antique world took advantage of pre-existing, private structures\u2014houses.\r\n\r\nThe house church in general was known as the\u00a0<em>domus ecclesiae<\/em>, Latin for house and assembly.\u00a0<em>Domi ecclesiae<\/em> emerged in third-century Rome and are closely tied to the domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard.\r\n\r\nThese rooms were often adjoined to create a larger gathering space that could accommodate small crowds of around fifty people. Other rooms were used for different religious and ceremonial purposes, including education, the celebration of the Eucharist, the baptism of Christian converts, the storage of charitable items, and private prayer and mass. The plan of the house church at Dura-Europos illustrates how house churches elsewhere were designed.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34053\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"388\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/2om7i1z0qzaslgosvy7x.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is an image of the ground plan of the Dura Europos. It shows a square layout with a courtyard at its center.\" width=\"388\" height=\"367\" \/> <em><strong>Plan of the house church at Dura-Europos:<\/strong> Domi ecclesiae emerged in third-century Rome and are closely tied to the domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nWhen Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians were no longer forced to use pre-existing homes for their churches and meeting houses. Instead, they began to build churches of their own.\r\n\r\nEven then, Christian churches often purposefully featured unassuming\u2014even plain\u2014exteriors. They tended to be much larger as the rise in the popularity of the Christian faith meant that churches needed to accommodate an increasing volume of people.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Architecture of the Early Christian Church<\/h2>\r\nAfter their persecution ended in the fourth century, Christians began to erect buildings that were larger and more elaborate than the house churches where they used to worship. However, what emerged was an architectural style distinct from classical pagan forms.\r\n\r\nArchitectural formulas for temples were deemed unsuitable. This was not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods. The temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, served as a backdrop. Therefore, Christians began using the model of the basilica, which had a central [pb_glossary id=\"1293\"]nave[\/pb_glossary] with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end.\r\n<h3>Old St. Peter\u2019s and the Western Basilica<\/h3>\r\nThe [pb_glossary id=\"1249\"]basilica[\/pb_glossary] model was adopted in the construction of Old St. Peter\u2019s church in Rome. What stands today is New St. Peter\u2019s church, which replaced the original during the Italian Renaissance.\r\n\r\nWhereas the original Roman basilica was rectangular with at least one apse, usually facing North, the Christian builders made several symbolic modifications. Between the nave and the apse, they added a [pb_glossary id=\"1606\"]transept[\/pb_glossary], which ran perpendicular to the nave. This addition gave the building a cruciform shape to memorialize the Crucifixion.\r\n\r\nThe apse, which held the altar and the Eucharist, \u00a0now faced East, in the direction of the rising sun. However, the apse of Old St. Peter\u2019s faced West to commemorate the church\u2019s namesake, who, according to the popular narrative, was crucified upside down.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34041\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"577\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160215\/ucetc1durra0m987z3yk.png\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of Old St. Peter's Basilica.\" width=\"577\" height=\"338\" \/> <em><strong>Plan of Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica:<\/strong> One of the first Christian churches in Rome, Old St. Peter\u2019s followed the plan of the Roman basilica and added a transept (labelled Bema in this diagram) to give the church a cruciform shape.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34042\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"539\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/jbfpysultnpviesifvvg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is an artist's rendering of the exterior reconstruction of Old St. Peter's.\" width=\"539\" height=\"335\" \/> <em><strong>Exterior reconstruction of Old St. Peter\u2019s:<\/strong> This reconstruction depicts an idea of how the church appeared in the fourth century.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nA Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt. It was ringed with a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor, or like the cloister that was its descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street.\r\n\r\nIn basilicas of the former Western Roman Empire, the central nave is taller than the aisles and forms a row of windows called a clerestory. In the Eastern Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire, which continued until the fifteenth century), churches were centrally planned. The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, in Italy, is a prime example of an Eastern church.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\r\n<h2>Sculpture of the Early Christian Church<\/h2>\r\nDespite early opposition to monumental sculpture, artists for the early Christian church in the West eventually began producing life-sized sculptures. Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculptures. Nevertheless, they continued the ancient Roman sculptural traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs. Smaller objects, such as consular [pb_glossary id=\"1253\"]diptychs[\/pb_glossary], were also part of the Roman traditions that the Early Christians continued.\r\n<h3>Small Ivory Reliefs<\/h3>\r\nConsular [pb_glossary id=\"1253\"]diptychs[\/pb_glossary] were commissioned by consuls elected at the beginning of the year to mark his entry to that post and were distributed as a commemorative reward to those who supported his candidature or might support him in future.\r\n\r\nThe oldest consular diptych depicts the consul Probus (406 CE) dressed in the traditional garb of a Roman soldier. Despite showing signs of the growing stylization and abstraction of Late Antiquity, Probus maintains a [pb_glossary id=\"1186\"]contrapposto pose[\/pb_glossary]. Although Christianity had been the state religion of the Roman Empire for over 25 years, a small winged Victory with a laurel wreath poses on a globe that Probus holds in his left hand. However, the standard he holds in his right-hand translates as, \u201cIn the name of Christ, you always conquer.\u201d\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"222\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/kbkkjki3rw65reo1kyuv.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the consular diptych of Probus. In this diptych, Probus is portrayed in elaborate armor and he holds a globe with a Victory on top.\" width=\"222\" height=\"447\" \/> <em><strong>Consular diptych of Probus:<\/strong> Despite showing signs of the growing stylization and abstraction of Late Antiquity, Probus maintains a contrapposto pose.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"entry-content\"><\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption alignright\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34057\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34059\">\r\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Early Christian,\u00a0or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to between 260 and 525.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The lack of surviving Christian art from the first century could be due to a lack of artists in the community, a lack of funds, or a small audience.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early Christians used the Late Classical style and adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Because the religion was illegal until 313, Christian artists felt compelled to disguise their subject matter.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>House churches were private homes that were converted into Christian churches to protect the secrecy of Christianity.\r\nThe house church at Dura-Europos is the earliest house church that has been discovered.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable, so the Christians used the model of the basilica, which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. The transept was added to give the building a cruciform shape.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century that stood behind an entirely enclosed forecourt that was ringed with a colonnade or arcade. This forecourt was entered from the outside through a range of buildings that ran along the public street.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, churches tended to be centrally planned, with a central dome surrounded by at least one ambulatory.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early Christians continued the ancient Roman traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs, as well as in smaller objects such as the consular diptych.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAdapted from <strong>\"Boundless Art History\" <\/strong>https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/early-jewish-and-christian-art\/\u00a0<strong>License: <span style=\"color: #993300\"><em><a style=\"color: #993300\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/span><\/strong>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<p>Early Christian, or Paleochristian, art was created by Christians or under Christian patronage throughout the second and third centuries.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">By the end of this module you will be able to:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Identify and describe the form, content, and context of key early Christian works<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span style=\"font-size: 1em\">Define key terms related to early Christian art<\/span><\/li>\n<li>Discuss the influence of Greco-Roman culture on the development of early Christian art<\/li>\n<li>Explain what replaced the Classical temple in Early Christian architecture and why it evolved<\/li>\n<li>Differentiate Early Christian sculpture from earlier Roman sculptural traditions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Early Christianity<\/h3>\n<p>By the early years of Christianity (first century), Judaism had been legalized through a compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Around the year 98, Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as a distinct religion. This opened the way to the persecutions of Christians for disobedience to the emperor, as they refused to worship the state pantheon.<\/p>\n<p>The oppression of Christians was only periodic until the middle of the first century. However, large-scale persecutions began in the year 64 when Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome earlier that year. Early Christians continued to suffer sporadic persecutions. Because of their refusal to honour the Roman pantheon, which many believed brought misfortune upon the community, the local pagan populations put pressure on the imperial authorities to take action against their Christian neighbours. The last and most severe persecution organized by the imperial authorities was the Diocletianic Persecution from 303 to 311.<\/p>\n<h3>Early Christian Art<\/h3>\n<p>Early Christian, or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition used, between 260 and 525. In practice, identifiably Christian art only survives from the second century onwards. After 550, Christian art is classified as Byzantine, or of some other regional type.<\/p>\n<p>It is difficult to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a persecuted group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the lower classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage or a small number of followers.<\/p>\n<p>The Old Testament restrictions against the production of graven images (an idol or fetish carved in wood or stone) might have also constrained Christians from producing art. Christians could have made or purchased art with pagan iconography but given it Christian meanings. If this happened, \u201cChristian\u201d art would not be immediately recognizable as such.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, but it also used Roman styles. Late Classical art included a proportional portrayal of the human body and impressionistic presentation of space. The Late Classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, which include most examples of the earliest Christian art.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian art is generally divided into two periods by scholars: before and after the Edict of Milan of 313, which legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire. The end of the period of Early Christian art, which is typically defined by art historians as being in the fifth through seventh centuries, is thus a good deal later than the end of the period of Early Christianity as typically defined by theologians and church historians, which is more often considered to end under Constantine, between 313 and 325.<\/p>\n<h3>Early Christian Painting<\/h3>\n<p>In a move of strategic syncretism, the Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the \u201cGood Shepherd.\u201d Early Christians also developed their own iconography. Such symbols as the fish (<em>ikhthus)<\/em>, were not borrowed from pagan iconography.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34040\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 599px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/gie4hbxjsik3ijlcoheu.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of iconography from the Christian Catacombs. It depicts five loaves of bread and two fish, alluding to Jesus feeding the multitude.\" width=\"599\" height=\"412\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Fish and Loaves:<\/strong> This fish-and-loaves fresco\u2014iconography particular to Christians and representative of the Eucharist\u2014is found in the Catacombs of San Callisto.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>During the persecution of Christians under the Roman Empire, Christian art was necessarily and deliberately furtive and ambiguous, using imagery that was shared with pagan culture but had a special meaning for Christians. The earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late second to early fourth centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there might have been panel icons which have disappeared.<\/p>\n<h3>Depictions of Jesus<\/h3>\n<p>Initially, Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the ichthys, the peacock, the Lamb of God, or an anchor. Later, personified symbols were used, including Daniel in the lion\u2019s den, Orpheus charming the animals, or Jonah, whose three days in the belly of the whale prefigured the interval between the death and resurrection of Jesus. However, the depiction of Jesus was well-developed by the end of the pre-Constantinian period. He was typically shown in narrative scenes, with a preference for New Testament miracles, and a few scenes from his Passion. A variety of different types of appearance were used, including the thin, long-faced figure with long, centrally-parted hair that was later to become the norm. But in the earliest images as many show a stocky and short-haired beardless figure in a short tunic, who can only be identified by his context. In many images of miracles, Jesus carries a stick or wand, which he points at the subject of the miracle rather like a modern stage magician (though the wand is significantly larger).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34052\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 335px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/7ipc6etrrd6uyppwaonk.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"In this image, Jesus heals a bleeding woman. He stands above her wearing white robes and places a hand above her head. She kneels, appearing either to reach for him or to hold onto the hem of his robe.\" width=\"335\" height=\"446\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Jesus Healing a Bleeding Woman:<\/strong> A typical depiction of Jesus for its time. This fresco shows a clean-shaven man with short hair. From the catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter, c. 300\u2013350.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The image of The Good Shepherd, a beardless youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images and was probably not understood as a portrait of the historical Jesus. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of\u00a0<em>kouroi\u00a0<\/em>figures in Greco-Roman art.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34037\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 241px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/nshizj8rogatju9yhehq.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This image depicts a shepherd and two sheep by his side.\" width=\"241\" height=\"341\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Good\u00a0Shepherd:<\/strong> A fresco from the catacombs of San Callisto.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34039\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 241px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/iopxgajhr7uiyxmotdli.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This a photo of a fresco painting depicting the Good Shepherd.\" width=\"241\" height=\"350\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>The Good Shepherd:<\/strong> This painting of the Good Shepherd motif is a fusion of pagan and Christian symbolism.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The almost total absence from Christian paintings during the persecution period of the cross, except in the disguised form of the anchor, is notable. The cross, symbolizing Jesus\u2019s crucifixion, was not represented explicitly for several centuries, possibly because crucifixion was a punishment meted out to common criminals, but also because literary sources noted that it was a symbol recognized as specifically Christian, as the sign of the cross was made by Christians from the earliest days of the religion.<\/p>\n<h3>House Church at Dura-Europos<\/h3>\n<p>The house church at Dura-Europos is the oldest known house church. One of the walls within the structure was inscribed with a date that was interpreted as 231. It was preserved when it was filled with earth to strengthen the city\u2019s fortifications against an attack by the Sassanians in 256 CE.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34035\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\">\n<figure style=\"width: 532px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/n1jevihnsyf7dqtqouvt.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the ruins as they stand today of a house church at Dura-Europos. It shows the chapel area on the right. The ruins are a sandy brown color.\" width=\"532\" height=\"399\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Remains of a house church at Dura-Europos:<\/strong> House churches, where Christians congregated secretly, were common prior to the legalization of Christianity.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Despite the larger atmosphere of persecution, the artifacts found in the house church provide evidence of localized Roman tolerance for a Christian presence. This location housed frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus healing the sick.<\/p>\n<p>When Christianity emerged in the Late Antique world, Christian ceremony and worship were secretive. Before Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians suffered intermittent periods of persecution at the hands of the Romans. Therefore, Christian worship was purposefully kept as inconspicuous as possible. Rather than building prominent new structures to express religious use, Christians in the Late Antique world took advantage of pre-existing, private structures\u2014houses.<\/p>\n<p>The house church in general was known as the\u00a0<em>domus ecclesiae<\/em>, Latin for house and assembly.\u00a0<em>Domi ecclesiae<\/em> emerged in third-century Rome and are closely tied to the domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard.<\/p>\n<p>These rooms were often adjoined to create a larger gathering space that could accommodate small crowds of around fifty people. Other rooms were used for different religious and ceremonial purposes, including education, the celebration of the Eucharist, the baptism of Christian converts, the storage of charitable items, and private prayer and mass. The plan of the house church at Dura-Europos illustrates how house churches elsewhere were designed.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34053\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 388px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/2om7i1z0qzaslgosvy7x.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is an image of the ground plan of the Dura Europos. It shows a square layout with a courtyard at its center.\" width=\"388\" height=\"367\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Plan of the house church at Dura-Europos:<\/strong> Domi ecclesiae emerged in third-century Rome and are closely tied to the domestic Roman architecture of this period, specifically to the peristyle house in which the rooms were arranged around a central courtyard.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>When Christianity was legalized in the fourth century, Christians were no longer forced to use pre-existing homes for their churches and meeting houses. Instead, they began to build churches of their own.<\/p>\n<p>Even then, Christian churches often purposefully featured unassuming\u2014even plain\u2014exteriors. They tended to be much larger as the rise in the popularity of the Christian faith meant that churches needed to accommodate an increasing volume of people.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Architecture of the Early Christian Church<\/h2>\n<p>After their persecution ended in the fourth century, Christians began to erect buildings that were larger and more elaborate than the house churches where they used to worship. However, what emerged was an architectural style distinct from classical pagan forms.<\/p>\n<p>Architectural formulas for temples were deemed unsuitable. This was not simply for their pagan associations, but because pagan cult and sacrifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight of the gods. The temple, housing the cult figures and the treasury, served as a backdrop. Therefore, Christians began using the model of the basilica, which had a central <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1293\">nave<\/a> with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end.<\/p>\n<h3>Old St. Peter\u2019s and the Western Basilica<\/h3>\n<p>The <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1249\">basilica<\/a> model was adopted in the construction of Old St. Peter\u2019s church in Rome. What stands today is New St. Peter\u2019s church, which replaced the original during the Italian Renaissance.<\/p>\n<p>Whereas the original Roman basilica was rectangular with at least one apse, usually facing North, the Christian builders made several symbolic modifications. Between the nave and the apse, they added a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1606\">transept<\/a>, which ran perpendicular to the nave. This addition gave the building a cruciform shape to memorialize the Crucifixion.<\/p>\n<p>The apse, which held the altar and the Eucharist, \u00a0now faced East, in the direction of the rising sun. However, the apse of Old St. Peter\u2019s faced West to commemorate the church\u2019s namesake, who, according to the popular narrative, was crucified upside down.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34041\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 577px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1849\/2017\/05\/31160215\/ucetc1durra0m987z3yk.png\" alt=\"This is the ground plan of Old St. Peter's Basilica.\" width=\"577\" height=\"338\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Plan of Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica:<\/strong> One of the first Christian churches in Rome, Old St. Peter\u2019s followed the plan of the Roman basilica and added a transept (labelled Bema in this diagram) to give the church a cruciform shape.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34042\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<figure style=\"width: 539px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/jbfpysultnpviesifvvg.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is an artist's rendering of the exterior reconstruction of Old St. Peter's.\" width=\"539\" height=\"335\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Exterior reconstruction of Old St. Peter\u2019s:<\/strong> This reconstruction depicts an idea of how the church appeared in the fourth century.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century stood behind its entirely enclosed forecourt. It was ringed with a colonnade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its ancestor, or like the cloister that was its descendant. This forecourt was entered from outside through a range of buildings along the public street.<\/p>\n<p>In basilicas of the former Western Roman Empire, the central nave is taller than the aisles and forms a row of windows called a clerestory. In the Eastern Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire, which continued until the fifteenth century), churches were centrally planned. The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, in Italy, is a prime example of an Eastern church.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"boundless-concept\">\n<h2>Sculpture of the Early Christian Church<\/h2>\n<p>Despite early opposition to monumental sculpture, artists for the early Christian church in the West eventually began producing life-sized sculptures. Early Christians were opposed to monumental religious sculptures. Nevertheless, they continued the ancient Roman sculptural traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs. Smaller objects, such as consular <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1253\">diptychs<\/a>, were also part of the Roman traditions that the Early Christians continued.<\/p>\n<h3>Small Ivory Reliefs<\/h3>\n<p>Consular <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1253\">diptychs<\/a> were commissioned by consuls elected at the beginning of the year to mark his entry to that post and were distributed as a commemorative reward to those who supported his candidature or might support him in future.<\/p>\n<p>The oldest consular diptych depicts the consul Probus (406 CE) dressed in the traditional garb of a Roman soldier. Despite showing signs of the growing stylization and abstraction of Late Antiquity, Probus maintains a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_885_1186\">contrapposto pose<\/a>. Although Christianity had been the state religion of the Roman Empire for over 25 years, a small winged Victory with a laurel wreath poses on a globe that Probus holds in his left hand. However, the standard he holds in his right-hand translates as, \u201cIn the name of Christ, you always conquer.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 222px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/boundless-art-history\/kbkkjki3rw65reo1kyuv.jpe#fixme\" alt=\"This is a photo of the consular diptych of Probus. In this diptych, Probus is portrayed in elaborate armor and he holds a globe with a Victory on top.\" width=\"222\" height=\"447\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em><strong>Consular diptych of Probus:<\/strong> Despite showing signs of the growing stylization and abstraction of Late Antiquity, Probus maintains a contrapposto pose.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"entry-content\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption alignright\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34057\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<p class=\"wp-caption-text\">\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\" data-global-id=\"gid:\/\/boundless\/Image\/34059\">\n<div class=\"figure-cont\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Summary<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Early Christian,\u00a0or Paleochristian, art was produced by Christians or under Christian patronage from the earliest period of Christianity to between 260 and 525.<\/li>\n<li>The lack of surviving Christian art from the first century could be due to a lack of artists in the community, a lack of funds, or a small audience.<\/li>\n<li>Early Christians used the same artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and illuminated manuscripts.<\/li>\n<li>Early Christians used the Late Classical style and adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Because the religion was illegal until 313, Christian artists felt compelled to disguise their subject matter.<\/li>\n<li>House churches were private homes that were converted into Christian churches to protect the secrecy of Christianity.<br \/>\nThe house church at Dura-Europos is the earliest house church that has been discovered.<\/li>\n<li>Architectural formulas for temples were unsuitable, so the Christians used the model of the basilica, which had a central nave with one aisle at each side and an apse at one end. The transept was added to give the building a cruciform shape.<\/li>\n<li>A Christian basilica of the fourth or fifth century that stood behind an entirely enclosed forecourt that was ringed with a colonnade or arcade. This forecourt was entered from the outside through a range of buildings that ran along the public street.<\/li>\n<li>In the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, churches tended to be centrally planned, with a central dome surrounded by at least one ambulatory.<\/li>\n<li>Early Christians continued the ancient Roman traditions in portrait busts and sarcophagus reliefs, as well as in smaller objects such as the consular diptych.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Adapted from <strong>&#8220;Boundless Art History&#8221; <\/strong>https:\/\/courses.lumenlearning.com\/boundless-arthistory\/chapter\/early-jewish-and-christian-art\/\u00a0<strong>License: <span style=\"color: #993300\"><em><a style=\"color: #993300\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"license noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike<\/a><\/em><\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_885_1293\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_885_1293\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The middle or body of a church, extending from the transepts to the principal entrances.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_885_1249\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_885_1249\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A Christian church building that has a nave with a semicircular apse, side aisles, a narthex and a clerestory.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_885_1606\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_885_1606\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Area in a church that surrounds the altar.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_885_1253\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_885_1253\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A pair of linked panels, generally in ivory, wood, or metal and adorned with rich, sculpted decoration.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_885_1186\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_885_1186\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Italian term for the position of a figure whose hips and legs are twisted away from the direction of the head and shoulders. Also known as Chiastisc pose.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":961,"menu_order":2,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-885","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":800,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/885","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/961"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/885\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2267,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/885\/revisions\/2267"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/800"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/885\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=885"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=885"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=885"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/cavestocathedrals\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=885"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}