{"id":444,"date":"2022-06-23T13:13:40","date_gmt":"2022-06-23T17:13:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/chapter\/7-1-ionic-bonding-chemistry-2e\/"},"modified":"2022-07-05T10:53:49","modified_gmt":"2022-07-05T14:53:49","slug":"7-1-ionic-bonding-chemistry-2e","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/chapter\/7-1-ionic-bonding-chemistry-2e\/","title":{"raw":"7.1 Ionic Bonding","rendered":"7.1 Ionic Bonding"},"content":{"raw":"<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the formation of cations, anions, and ionic compounds<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm163451984\">As you have learned, ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91147568\">Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts), and their constituent ions are held together by <strong>ionic bonds<\/strong>: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions. The properties of ionic compounds shed some light on the nature of ionic bonds. Ionic solids exhibit a crystalline structure and tend to be rigid and brittle; they also tend to have high melting and boiling points, which suggests that ionic bonds are very strong. Ionic solids are also poor conductors of electricity for the same reason\u2014the strength of ionic bonds prevents ions from moving freely in the solid state. Most ionic solids, however, dissolve readily in water. Once dissolved or melted, ionic compounds are excellent conductors of electricity and heat because the ions can move about freely.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91254256\">Neutral atoms and their associated ions have very different physical and chemical properties. Sodium <em>atoms<\/em> form sodium metal, a soft, silvery-white metal that burns vigorously in air and reacts explosively with water. Chlorine <em>atoms<\/em> form chlorine gas, Cl<sub>2<\/sub>, a yellow-green gas that is extremely corrosive to most metals and very poisonous to animals and plants. The vigorous reaction between the elements sodium and chlorine forms the white, crystalline compound sodium chloride, common table salt, which contains sodium <em>cations<\/em> and chloride <em>anions<\/em> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos\">(Figure)<\/a>). The compound composed of these ions exhibits properties entirely different from the properties of the elements sodium and chlorine. Chlorine is poisonous, but sodium chloride is essential to life; sodium atoms react vigorously with water, but sodium chloride simply dissolves in water.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) Sodium is a soft metal that must be stored in mineral oil to prevent reaction with air or water. (b) Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas. (c) When combined, they form white crystals of sodium chloride (table salt). (credit a: modification of work by \u201cJurii\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp90678016\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1718\/2022\/06\/CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos-2.jpg\" alt=\"Three pictures are shown and labeled \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc,\u201d from left to right. Image a shows a glass jar with a lid that is full of a clear, colorless liquid in which a silver solid is suspended. Image b depicts a glass bottle with a blue lid that is full of a yellow-green gas. Image c shows a black dish that is full of a white, crystalline solid.\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm22319248\" class=\"bc-section section\">\r\n<h3><strong>The Formation of Ionic Compounds<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm71257872\">Binary ionic compounds are composed of just two elements: a metal (which forms the cations) and a nonmetal (which forms the anions). For example, NaCl is a binary ionic compound. We can think about the formation of such compounds in terms of the periodic properties of the elements. Many metallic elements have relatively low ionization potentials and lose electrons easily. These elements lie to the left in a period or near the bottom of a group on the periodic table. Nonmetal atoms have relatively high electron affinities and thus readily gain electrons lost by metal atoms, thereby filling their valence shells. Nonmetallic elements are found in the upper-right corner of the periodic table.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm190724416\">As all substances must be electrically neutral, the total number of positive charges on the cations of an ionic compound must equal the total number of negative charges on its anions. The formula of an ionic compound represents the simplest ratio of the numbers of ions necessary to give identical numbers of positive and negative charges. For example, the formula for aluminum oxide, Al<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, indicates that this ionic compound contains two aluminum cations, Al<sup>3+<\/sup>, for every three oxide anions, O<sup>2\u2212<\/sup> [thus, (2 \u00d7 +3) + (3 \u00d7 \u20132) = 0].<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm111206416\">It is important to note, however, that the formula for an ionic compound does <em>not<\/em> represent the physical arrangement of its ions. It is incorrect to refer to a sodium chloride (NaCl) \u201cmolecule\u201d because there is not a single ionic bond, per se, between any specific pair of sodium and chloride ions. Instead, we refer to a \u201cformula unit\u201d of an ionic compound, which contains the number of ions shown in the empirical formula.\u00a0 (A formula unit of NaCl consists of one Na<sup>+<\/sup> ion and one Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ion). The attractive forces between ions are isotropic\u2014the same in all directions\u2014meaning that any particular ion is equally attracted to all of the nearby ions of opposite charge. This results in the ions arranging themselves into a tightly bound, three-dimensional lattice structure. Sodium chloride, for example, consists of a regular arrangement of equal numbers of Na<sup>+<\/sup> cations and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> anions (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The atoms in sodium chloride (common table salt) are arranged to (a) maximize opposite charges interacting. The smaller spheres represent sodium ions, the larger ones represent chloride ions. In the expanded view (b), the geometry can be seen more clearly. Note that each ion is \u201cbonded\u201d to all of the surrounding ions\u2014six in this case.<\/div>\r\n<span id=\"fs-idm160477712\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1718\/2022\/06\/CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc-2.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a cube made up of twenty-seven alternating purple and green spheres. The purple spheres are smaller than the green spheres. Diagram b shows the same spheres, but this time, they are spread out and connected in three dimensions by white rods. The purple spheres are labeled \u201cN superscript postive sign\u201d while the green are labeled \u201cC l superscript negative sign.\u201d\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm8803008\">The strong electrostatic attraction between Na<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ions holds them tightly together in solid NaCl. It requires 769 kJ of energy to dissociate one mole of solid NaCl into separate gaseous Na<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ions:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div style=\"text-align: center\">NaCl(<em>s<\/em>)\u00a0 \u2192 Na<sup>+<\/sup>(<em>g<\/em>) + Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup>(<em>g<\/em>)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u0394<em>H<\/em> = 769 kJ<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm20865904\" class=\"summary\">\r\n<h3><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91340640\">Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions with particularly stable electron configurations.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm7304032\" class=\"exercises\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm677136\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm163727216\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm149901376\"><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n<h3><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idm118453184\">\r\n \t<dt>ionic bond<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idm101179264\">strong electrostatic force of attraction between cations and anions in an ionic compound<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div><\/div>","rendered":"<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<h3><strong>Learning Objectives<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the formation of cations, anions, and ionic compounds<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm163451984\">As you have learned, ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence shell, and an anion (a negative ion) forms when a neutral atom gains one or more electrons in its valence shell.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91147568\">Compounds composed of ions are called ionic compounds (or salts), and their constituent ions are held together by <strong>ionic bonds<\/strong>: electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged cations and anions. The properties of ionic compounds shed some light on the nature of ionic bonds. Ionic solids exhibit a crystalline structure and tend to be rigid and brittle; they also tend to have high melting and boiling points, which suggests that ionic bonds are very strong. Ionic solids are also poor conductors of electricity for the same reason\u2014the strength of ionic bonds prevents ions from moving freely in the solid state. Most ionic solids, however, dissolve readily in water. Once dissolved or melted, ionic compounds are excellent conductors of electricity and heat because the ions can move about freely.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91254256\">Neutral atoms and their associated ions have very different physical and chemical properties. Sodium <em>atoms<\/em> form sodium metal, a soft, silvery-white metal that burns vigorously in air and reacts explosively with water. Chlorine <em>atoms<\/em> form chlorine gas, Cl<sub>2<\/sub>, a yellow-green gas that is extremely corrosive to most metals and very poisonous to animals and plants. The vigorous reaction between the elements sodium and chlorine forms the white, crystalline compound sodium chloride, common table salt, which contains sodium <em>cations<\/em> and chloride <em>anions<\/em> (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos\">(Figure)<\/a>). The compound composed of these ions exhibits properties entirely different from the properties of the elements sodium and chlorine. Chlorine is poisonous, but sodium chloride is essential to life; sodium atoms react vigorously with water, but sodium chloride simply dissolves in water.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) Sodium is a soft metal that must be stored in mineral oil to prevent reaction with air or water. (b) Chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas. (c) When combined, they form white crystals of sodium chloride (table salt). (credit a: modification of work by \u201cJurii\u201d\/Wikimedia Commons)<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp90678016\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1718\/2022\/06\/CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClPhotos-2.jpg\" alt=\"Three pictures are shown and labeled \u201ca,\u201d \u201cb,\u201d and \u201cc,\u201d from left to right. Image a shows a glass jar with a lid that is full of a clear, colorless liquid in which a silver solid is suspended. Image b depicts a glass bottle with a blue lid that is full of a yellow-green gas. Image c shows a black dish that is full of a white, crystalline solid.\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm22319248\" class=\"bc-section section\">\n<h3><strong>The Formation of Ionic Compounds<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm71257872\">Binary ionic compounds are composed of just two elements: a metal (which forms the cations) and a nonmetal (which forms the anions). For example, NaCl is a binary ionic compound. We can think about the formation of such compounds in terms of the periodic properties of the elements. Many metallic elements have relatively low ionization potentials and lose electrons easily. These elements lie to the left in a period or near the bottom of a group on the periodic table. Nonmetal atoms have relatively high electron affinities and thus readily gain electrons lost by metal atoms, thereby filling their valence shells. Nonmetallic elements are found in the upper-right corner of the periodic table.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm190724416\">As all substances must be electrically neutral, the total number of positive charges on the cations of an ionic compound must equal the total number of negative charges on its anions. The formula of an ionic compound represents the simplest ratio of the numbers of ions necessary to give identical numbers of positive and negative charges. For example, the formula for aluminum oxide, Al<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, indicates that this ionic compound contains two aluminum cations, Al<sup>3+<\/sup>, for every three oxide anions, O<sup>2\u2212<\/sup> [thus, (2 \u00d7 +3) + (3 \u00d7 \u20132) = 0].<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm111206416\">It is important to note, however, that the formula for an ionic compound does <em>not<\/em> represent the physical arrangement of its ions. It is incorrect to refer to a sodium chloride (NaCl) \u201cmolecule\u201d because there is not a single ionic bond, per se, between any specific pair of sodium and chloride ions. Instead, we refer to a \u201cformula unit\u201d of an ionic compound, which contains the number of ions shown in the empirical formula.\u00a0 (A formula unit of NaCl consists of one Na<sup>+<\/sup> ion and one Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ion). The attractive forces between ions are isotropic\u2014the same in all directions\u2014meaning that any particular ion is equally attracted to all of the nearby ions of opposite charge. This results in the ions arranging themselves into a tightly bound, three-dimensional lattice structure. Sodium chloride, for example, consists of a regular arrangement of equal numbers of Na<sup>+<\/sup> cations and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> anions (<a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc\">(Figure)<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">The atoms in sodium chloride (common table salt) are arranged to (a) maximize opposite charges interacting. The smaller spheres represent sodium ions, the larger ones represent chloride ions. In the expanded view (b), the geometry can be seen more clearly. Note that each ion is \u201cbonded\u201d to all of the surrounding ions\u2014six in this case.<\/div>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idm160477712\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1718\/2022\/06\/CNX_Chem_07_01_NaClStruc-2.jpg\" alt=\"Two diagrams are shown and labeled \u201ca\u201d and \u201cb.\u201d Diagram a shows a cube made up of twenty-seven alternating purple and green spheres. The purple spheres are smaller than the green spheres. Diagram b shows the same spheres, but this time, they are spread out and connected in three dimensions by white rods. The purple spheres are labeled \u201cN superscript postive sign\u201d while the green are labeled \u201cC l superscript negative sign.\u201d\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm8803008\">The strong electrostatic attraction between Na<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ions holds them tightly together in solid NaCl. It requires 769 kJ of energy to dissociate one mole of solid NaCl into separate gaseous Na<sup>+<\/sup> and Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup> ions:<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div style=\"text-align: center\">NaCl(<em>s<\/em>)\u00a0 \u2192 Na<sup>+<\/sup>(<em>g<\/em>) + Cl<sup>\u2013<\/sup>(<em>g<\/em>)\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u0394<em>H<\/em> = 769 kJ<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm20865904\" class=\"summary\">\n<h3><strong>Key Concepts and Summary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91340640\">Atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions with particularly stable electron configurations.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm7304032\" class=\"exercises\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm677136\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm163727216\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm149901376\">\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h3><strong>Glossary<\/strong><\/h3>\n<dl id=\"fs-idm118453184\">\n<dt>ionic bond<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idm101179264\">strong electrostatic force of attraction between cations and anions in an ionic compound<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1392,"menu_order":43,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[49],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-444","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":1402,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/444","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1392"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/444\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1557,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/444\/revisions\/1557"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1402"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/444\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=444"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=444"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=444"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/chemistry2eengineering\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=444"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}