{"id":106,"date":"2018-04-16T23:06:37","date_gmt":"2018-04-17T03:06:37","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=106"},"modified":"2018-04-16T23:06:37","modified_gmt":"2018-04-17T03:06:37","slug":"chapter-28","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/chapter\/chapter-28\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 28","rendered":"Chapter 28"},"content":{"raw":"<header id=\"abstract\"><h1 id=\"module-title\">States of Consciousness<\/h1>By <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/authors\/robert-biswas-diener\" rel=\"author\">Robert Biswas-Diener<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/authors\/jake-teeny\" rel=\"author\">Jake Teeny<\/a>\n\n<p class=\"text-muted\">Portland State University, The Ohio State University\n\n<\/header><section><p class=\"lead\">No matter what you\u2019re doing--solving homework, playing a video game, simply picking out a shirt--all of your actions and decisions relate to your consciousness. But as frequently as we use it, have you ever stopped to ask yourself: What really is consciousness? In this module, we discuss the different levels of consciousness and how they can affect your behavior in a variety of situations. As well, we explore the role of consciousness in other, \u201caltered\u201d states like hypnosis and sleep.\n\n<\/section><nav class=\"navbar noba-navbar-action\" role=\"toolbar\"><a class=\"btn btn-hollow btn-hollow-inverse btn-download navbar-btn pull-right download-module\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/module-editions\/2313\/download\" rel=\"nofollow\"><span class=\"fontello \">\ue812<span class=\"sr-only\">PDF<\/span><\/span> <span>Download<\/span><\/a><div class=\"navbar-header\"><\/div><div class=\"collapse navbar-collapse\" id=\"noba-navbar-action\"><div class=\"collapse-wrapper\"><ul class=\"nav navbar-nav\"><li><a class=\"share share-facebook\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/sharer\/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek\"><img alt=\"Share on Facebook\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/facebook@2x-14b7f010fdaab7751eaff49c702d45851296a56967f4fbdc12170671bf594d7f.png\" title=\"Share on Facebook\" width=\"42\"><\/a><\/li><li><a class=\"share share-twitter\" href=\"http:\/\/twitter.com\/intent\/tweet?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek&amp;text=This%20is%20the%20future%20of%20textbooks%3A%C2%A0States%20of%20Consciousness\"><img alt=\"Share on Twitter\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/twitter@2x-f5c62500fccc964637cab4e89196b7c44e7ef64b8654ee123dfd48448232bd52.png\" title=\"Share on Twitter\" width=\"42\"><\/a><\/li><li><a class=\"share share-google-plus\" href=\"https:\/\/plus.google.com\/share?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek\"><img alt=\"Share on Google Plus\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/google-plus@2x-49d3d8b3e6c5378a839977af10e546595592cdd567ba44fb611c4468b6309829.png\" title=\"Share on Google Plus\" width=\"42\"><\/a><\/li><li><a class=\"share share-email\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#modal-email_98\"><img alt=\"Share via Email\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/email@2x-a8982d45249ff3b3e437d1f1125dd1faf1e5649f091e9c7eabfb1a8a1a3c4521.png\" title=\"Share via Email\" width=\"42\"><\/a><\/li><\/ul><form class=\"navbar-form navbar-left share share-url\"><label class=\"sr-only\">Share this URL<\/label><\/form><\/div><\/div><\/nav><section id=\"tags\"><ul class=\"tags\"><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=21\">Awareness<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=531\">bias<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=41\">Consciousness<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=532\">Hypnosis<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=42\">Priming<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=139\">Sleep<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=533\">Trance<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h2 id=\"learning-objectives\">Learning Objectives<\/h2><ul><li>Define consciousness and distinguish between high and low conscious states<\/li><li>Explain the relationship between consciousness and bias<\/li><li>Understand the difference between popular portrayals of hypnosis and how it is currently used therapeutically<\/li><\/ul><\/section><section class=\"content\"><h1 id=\"introduction\">Introduction<\/h1>Have you ever had a fellow motorist stopped beside you at a red light, singing his brains out, or picking his nose, or otherwise behaving in ways he might not normally do in public? There is something about being alone in a car that encourages people to zone out and forget that others can see them. Although these little lapses of attention are amusing for the rest of us, they are also instructive when it comes to the topic of consciousness.\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/131\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A young man sits behind the wheel of a car with his eyes closed as he sings along with the radio.\" title=\"A young man sits behind the wheel of a car with his eyes closed as he sings along with the radio.\"><figcaption>This guy is singing his heart out in his one-man mobile music studio. Have you ever done this? [Image: Joshua Ommen, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Za97c3,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Za97c3,<\/a> CC BY-NC-SA 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Toc0ZF%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Toc0ZF]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-consciousness\" title=\"\">Consciousness<\/a> is a term meant to indicate awareness. It includes awareness of the self, of bodily sensations, of thoughts and of the environment. In English, we use the opposite word \u201cunconscious\u201d to indicate senselessness or a barrier to awareness, as in the case of \u201cTheresa fell off the ladder and hit her head, knocking herself unconscious.\u201d And yet, psychological theory and research suggest that consciousness and unconsciousness are more complicated than falling off a ladder. That is, consciousness is more than just being \u201con\u201d or \u201coff.\u201d For instance, Sigmund Freud (1856 \u2013 1939)\u2014a psychological theorist\u2014understood that even while we are awake, many things lay outside the realm of our conscious awareness (like being in the car and forgetting the rest of the world can see into your windows). In response to this notion, Freud introduced the concept of the \u201csubconscious\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-7\" title=\"\">Freud, 2001<\/a>) and proposed that some of our memories and even our basic motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds.\n\nUpon reflection, it is easy to see how slippery a topic consciousness is. For example, are people conscious when they are&nbsp;daydreaming? What about when they are&nbsp;drunk? In this module, we will describe several levels of consciousness and then discuss altered states of consciousness such as hypnosis and sleep.\n\n<h1 id=\"levels-of-awareness\">Levels of Awareness<\/h1>In 1957, a marketing researcher inserted the words \u201cEat Popcorn\u201d onto one frame of a film being shown all across the United States. And although that frame was only projected onto the movie&nbsp;screen for 1\/24th of a second\u2014a speed too fast to be perceived by conscious awareness\u2014the researcher reported an increase in popcorn sales by nearly 60%. Almost immediately, all forms of \u201csubliminal messaging\u201d were regulated in the US and banned in countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom. Even though it was later shown that the researcher had made up the data (he hadn\u2019t even inserted the words into the film), this fear about influences on our subconscious persists. At its heart, this issue pits various levels of awareness against one another. On the one hand, we have the \u201clow awareness\u201d of subtle, even subliminal influences. On the other hand, there is you\u2014the conscious thinking, feeling you which includes all that you are currently aware of, even reading this sentence. However, when we consider these different levels of awareness separately, we can better understand how they operate.\n\n<h2 id=\"low-awareness\"><em>Low Awareness<\/em><\/h2>You are constantly receiving and evaluating sensory information. Although each moment has too many sights, smells, and sounds for them all to be consciously considered, our brains are nonetheless processing all that information. For example, have you ever been at a party, overwhelmed by all the people and conversation, when out of nowhere you hear your name called? Even though you have no idea what else the person is saying, you are somehow conscious of your name (for more on this, \u201cthe cocktail party effect,\u201d see Noba\u2019s Module on Attention). So, even though you may not be <em>aware<\/em> of various stimuli in your environment, your brain is paying closer attention than you think.\n\nSimilar to a reflex (like jumping when startled), some <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-cues\" title=\"\">cues<\/a>, or significant sensory information, will automatically elicit a response from us even though we never consciously perceive it. For example, \u00d6hman and Soares (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-15\" title=\"\">1994<\/a>) measured subtle variations in sweating of participants with a fear of snakes. The researchers flashed pictures of different objects (e.g., mushrooms, flowers, and most importantly, snakes) on a screen in front of them, but did so at speeds that left the participant clueless as to what he or she had actually seen. However, when snake pictures were flashed, these participants started sweating more (i.e., a sign of fear), even though they had no idea what they\u2019d just viewed!\n\nAlthough our brains perceive some stimuli without our conscious awareness, do they really affect our subsequent thoughts and behaviors? In a landmark study, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-3\" title=\"\">Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996)<\/a> had participants solve a word search puzzle where the answers pertained to words about the elderly (e.g., \u201cold,\u201d \u201cgrandma\u201d) or something random (e.g., \u201cnotebook,\u201d \u201ctomato\u201d). Afterward, the researchers secretly measured how fast the participants walked down the hallway exiting the experiment. And although none of the participants were aware of a theme to the answers, those who had solved a puzzle with elderly words (vs. those with other types of words) walked more slowly down the hallway!\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/785\/original.jpg\"><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure>This effect is called&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-priming\" title=\"\">priming<\/a> (i.e., readily \u201cactivating\u201d certain concepts and associations from one\u2019s memory) has been found in a number of other studies. For example, priming people by having them drink from a warm glass (vs. a cold one) resulted in behaving more \u201cwarmly\u201d toward others (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-23\" title=\"\">Williams &amp; Bargh, 2008<\/a>). Although all of these influences occur beneath one\u2019s conscious awareness, they still have a significant effect on one\u2019s subsequent thoughts and behaviors.\n\nIn the last two decades, researchers have made advances in studying aspects of psychology that exist beyond conscious awareness. As you can understand, it is difficult to use self-reports and surveys to ask people about motives or beliefs that they, themselves, might not even be aware of! One way of side-stepping this difficulty can be found in the <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-implicit-associations-test\" title=\"\">implicit associations test<\/a>, or IAT (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-10\" title=\"\">Greenwald, McGhee &amp; Schwartz, 1998<\/a>). This research method uses computers to assess people\u2019s reaction times to various stimuli and is a very difficult test to fake because it records automatic reactions that occur in milliseconds. For instance, to shed light on deeply held biases, the IAT might present photographs of Caucasian faces and Asian faces while asking research participants to click buttons indicating either \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d as quickly as possible. Even if the participant clicks \u201cgood\u201d for every face shown, the IAT can still pick up tiny delays in responding. Delays are associated with more mental effort needed to process information. When information is processed quickly\u2014as in the example of white faces being judged as \u201cgood\u201d\u2014it can be contrasted with slower processing\u2014as in the example of Asian faces being judged as \u201cgood\u201d\u2014and the difference in processing speed is reflective of bias. In this regard, the IAT has been used for investigating stereotypes (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-14\" title=\"\">Nosek, Banaji &amp; Greenwald, 2002<\/a>) as well as self-esteem (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-9\" title=\"\">Greenwald &amp; Farnam, 2000<\/a>).&nbsp;This method can help uncover non-conscious biases as well as those that we are motivated to suppress.\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/784\/original.png\" alt=\"A screenshot shows a portion of the Implicit Associations Test. At the center a photo of a black man's face, from just above the eyebrows to just above the mouth, can be seen. At the top left corner the words &quot;African American or Good&quot; appear. At the top right the words &quot;European American or Bad&quot; appear. At the bottom of the screen the following instructions appear, &quot;If the keys do not work, click the mouse inside the white box and try again. If the red X appears, press the other key to make the red X go away.&quot;\" title=\"A screenshot shows a portion of the Implicit Associations Test. At the center a photo of a black man's face, from just above the eyebrows to just above the mouth, can be seen. At the top left corner the words &quot;African American or Good&quot; appear. At the top right the words &quot;European American or Bad&quot; appear. At the bottom of the screen the following instructions appear, &quot;If the keys do not work, click the mouse inside the white box and try again. If the red X appears, press the other key to make the red X go away.&quot;\"><figcaption>An actual screenshot from an IAT (Implicit Association Test) that a person might take to test their own mental representations of various cognitive constructs. In this particular case, this is an item testing an individual\u2019s unconscious reaction towards members of various ethnic groups. [Image: Courtesy of Anthony Greenwald from Project Implicit]<\/figcaption><\/figure><h2 id=\"high-awareness\"><em>High Awareness<\/em><\/h2>Just because we may be influenced by these \u201cinvisible\u201d factors, it doesn\u2019t mean we are helplessly controlled by them. The other side of the awareness continuum is known as \u201chigh awareness.\u201d This includes effortful attention and careful decision making. For example, when you listen to a funny story on a date, or consider which class schedule would be preferable, or complete a complex math problem, you are engaging a state of consciousness that allows you to be highly aware of and focused on particular details in your environment.\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/364\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A young man sits in the lotus position meditating.\" title=\"A young man sits in the lotus position meditating.\"><figcaption>Meditation has been practiced for centuries in religious contexts. In the past 50 years it has become increasingly popular as a secular practice. Scientific studies have linked meditation to lower stress and higher well-being. [Image: Indrek Torilo,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Bc5Iwm,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Bc5Iwm,<\/a> CC BY-NC 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-mindfulness\" title=\"\">Mindfulness<\/a> is a state of higher consciousness that includes an&nbsp;awareness of the thoughts passing through one\u2019s head. For example, have you ever snapped at someone in frustration, only to take a moment and reflect on why you responded so aggressively? This more effortful consideration of your thoughts could be described as an expansion of your conscious awareness as you take the time to consider the possible influences on your thoughts. Research has shown that when you engage in this more deliberate consideration, you are less persuaded by irrelevant yet biasing influences, like the presence of a celebrity in an advertisement (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-18\" title=\"\">Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986<\/a>). Higher awareness is also associated with recognizing when you\u2019re using a stereotype, rather than fairly evaluating another person (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-8\" title=\"\">Gilbert &amp; Hixon, 1991<\/a>).\n\nHumans alternate between low and high thinking states. That is, we shift between focused attention and a less attentive default sate, and we have neural networks for both (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-25\" title=\"\">Raichle, 2015<\/a>). Interestingly, the the less we\u2019re paying attention, the more likely we are to be influenced by non-conscious stimuli (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-26\" title=\"\">Chaiken, 1980<\/a>).&nbsp; Although these subtle influences may affect us, we can use our higher conscious awareness to protect against external influences. In what\u2019s known as the <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-flexible-correction-model\" title=\"\">Flexible Correction Model<\/a>(<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-21\" title=\"\">Wegener &amp; Petty, 1997<\/a>), people who are aware that their thoughts or behavior are being influenced by an undue, outside source, can correct their attitude against the bias. For example, you might be aware that you are influenced by mention of specific political parties. If you were motivated to consider a government policy you can take your own biases into account to attempt to consider the policy in a fair way (on its own merits rather than being attached to a certain party).\n\nTo help make the relationship between lower and higher consciousness clearer, imagine the brain is like a journey down a river.&nbsp;&nbsp;In low awareness, you simply float on a small rubber&nbsp;raft and let the currents push you. It's not very difficult to just drift along&nbsp;but you also don't have total control. Higher states of consciousness are more like traveling in a canoe. In this scenario, you have a paddle and can steer, but it requires more effort.&nbsp;This analogy applies to many states of consciousness, but not all. What about other states such as&nbsp;like sleeping, daydreaming, or hypnosis? How are these related to our conscious awareness?\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/783\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A summary of the costs and benefits of high and low awareness as discussed in the text.\" title=\"A summary of the costs and benefits of high and low awareness as discussed in the text.\"><figcaption>Table 1: States of Consciousness<\/figcaption><\/figure><h1 id=\"other-states-of-consciousness\">Other States of Consciousness<\/h1><h2 id=\"hypnosis\"><em>Hypnosis<\/em><\/h2>If you\u2019ve ever watched a stage hypnotist perform, it may paint a misleading portrait of this state of consciousness. The hypnotized people on stage, for example, appear to be in a state similar to sleep. However, as the hypnotist continues with the show, you would recognize some profound differences between sleep and hypnosis. Namely, when you\u2019re asleep, hearing the word \u201cstrawberry\u201d doesn\u2019t make you flap your arms like a chicken. In stage performances, the hypnotized participants appear to be highly suggestible, to the point that they are seemingly under the hypnotist\u2019s control. Such performances are entertaining but have a way of sensationalizing the true nature of hypnotic states.\n\n<figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/365\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A stage hypnotist holds his hand over the head of a volunteer who falls limp into the arms of the hypnotist's assistant. A group of volunteers seem to be unconscious in their seats in the background.\" title=\"A stage hypnotist holds his hand over the head of a volunteer who falls limp into the arms of the hypnotist's assistant. A group of volunteers seem to be unconscious in their seats in the background.\"><figcaption>People being hypnotized on stage. [Image: New Media Expo, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FWgBqs,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FWgBqs,<\/a> CC BY-NC-SA 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>Hypnosis is an actual, documented phenomenon\u2014one that has been studied and debated for over 200 years (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-17\" title=\"\">Pekala et al., 2010<\/a>). Franz Mesmer (1734 \u2013 1815) is often credited as among the first people to \u201cdiscover\u201d hypnosis, which he used to treat members of elite society who were experiencing psychological distress. It is from Mesmer\u2019s name that we get the English word, \u201cmesmerize\u201d meaning \u201cto entrance or transfix a person\u2019s attention.\u201d Mesmer attributed the effect of hypnosis to \u201canimal magnetism,\u201d a supposed universal force (similar to gravity) that operates through all human bodies. Even at the time, such an account of hypnosis was not scientifically supported, and Mesmer himself was frequently the center of controversy.\n\nOver the years, researchers have proposed that <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hypnosis\" title=\"\">hypnosis<\/a> is a mental state characterized by reduced peripheral awareness and increased focus on a singular stimulus, which results in an enhanced susceptibility to suggestion (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-11\" title=\"\">Kihlstrom, 2003<\/a>). For example, the hypnotist will usually induce hypnosis by getting the person to pay attention only to the hypnotist\u2019s voice. As the individual focuses more and more on that, s\/he begins to forget the context of the setting and responds to the hypnotist\u2019s suggestions as if they were his or her own. Some people are naturally more suggestible, and therefore more \u201chypnotizable\u201d than are others, and this is especially true for those who score high in empathy (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-22\" title=\"\">Wickramasekera II &amp; Szlyk, 2003<\/a>). One common \u201ctrick\u201d of stage hypnotists is to discard volunteers who are less suggestible than others.\n\n<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-dissociation\" title=\"\">Dissociation<\/a> is the separation of one\u2019s awareness from everything besides what one is centrally focused on. For example, if you\u2019ve ever been daydreaming in class, you were likely so caught up in the fantasy that you didn\u2019t hear a word the teacher said. During hypnosis, this dissociation becomes even more extreme. That is, a person concentrates so much on the words of the hypnotist that s\/he loses perspective of the rest of the world around them. As a consequence of dissociation, a person is less effortful, and less self-conscious in consideration of his or her own thoughts and behaviors. Similar to low awareness states, where one often acts on the first thought that comes to mind, so, too, in hypnosis does the individual simply follow the first thought that comes to mind, i.e., the hypnotist\u2019s suggestion. Still, just because one is more susceptible to suggestion under hypnosis, it doesn\u2019t mean s\/he will do anything that\u2019s ordered. To be hypnotized, you must first <em>want<\/em> to be hypnotized (i.e., you can\u2019t be hypnotized against your will; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-24\" title=\"\">Lynn &amp; Kirsh, 2006<\/a>), and once you are hypnotized, you won\u2019t do anything you wouldn\u2019t also do while in a more natural state of consciousness (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-13\" title=\"\">Lynn, Rhue, &amp; Weekes, 1990<\/a>).\n\nToday, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hypnotherapy\" title=\"\">hypnotherapy<\/a> is still used in a variety of formats, and it has evolved from Mesmer\u2019s early tinkering with the concept. Modern hypnotherapy often uses a combination of relaxation, suggestion, motivation and expectancies to create a desired mental or behavioral state. Although there is mixed evidence on whether hypnotherapy can help with addiction reduction (e.g., quitting smoking; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-1\" title=\"\">Abbot et al., 1998<\/a>) there is some evidence that it can be successful in treating sufferers of acute and chronic pain (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-6\" title=\"\">Ewin, 1978<\/a>; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-20\" title=\"\">Syrjala et al., 1992<\/a>). For example, one study examined the treatment of burn patients with either hypnotherapy, pseudo-hypnosis (i.e., a placebo condition), or no treatment at all. Afterward, even though people in the placebo condition experienced a 16% decrease in pain, those in the actual hypnosis condition experienced a reduction of nearly 50% (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-16\" title=\"\">Patterson et al., 1996<\/a>). Thus, even though hypnosis may be sensationalized for television and movies, its ability to disassociate a person from their environment (or their pain) in conjunction with increased suggestibility to a clinician\u2019s recommendations (e.g., \u201cyou will feel less anxiety about your chronic pain\u201d) is a documented practice with actual medical benefits.\n\nNow, similar to hypnotic states, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-trance-states\" title=\"\">trance states<\/a> also involve a dissociation of the self; however, people in a trance state are said to have less voluntary control over their behaviors and actions. Trance states often occur in religious ceremonies, where the person believes he or she is \u201cpossessed\u201d by an otherworldly being or force. While in trance, people report anecdotal accounts of a \u201chigher consciousness\u201d or communion with a greater power. However, the body of research investigating this phenomenon tends to reject the claim that these experiences constitute an \u201caltered state of consciousness.\u201d\n\nMost researchers today describe both hypnosis and trance states as \u201csubjective\u201d alterations of consciousness, not an actually distinct or evolved form (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-12\" title=\"\">Kirsch &amp; Lynn, 1995<\/a>). Just like you feel different when you\u2019re in a state of deep relaxation, so, too, are hypnotic and trance states simply shifts from the standard conscious experience. Researchers contend that even though both hypnotic and trance states appear and feel wildly different than the normal human experience, they can be explained by standard socio-cognitive factors like imagination, expectation, and the interpretation of the situation.\n\n<h2 id=\"sleep\"><em>Sleep<\/em><\/h2><figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/366\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A man dressed in pajamas sits up in bed as he stretches and yawns.\" title=\"A man dressed in pajamas sits up in bed as he stretches and yawns.\"><figcaption>Sleep is necessary in order for people to function well. [Image: jaci XIII, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/pog6Fr,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/pog6Fr,<\/a> CC BY-NC 2.0, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>You may have experienced the sensation-- as you are falling asleep-- of falling and then found yourself physically jerking forward and grabbing out as if you were really falling. Sleep is a unique state of consciousness; it lacks full awareness but the brain is still active. People generally follow a \u201cbiological clock\u201d that impacts when they naturally become drowsy, when they fall asleep, and the time they naturally awaken. The hormone<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-melatonin\" title=\"\">melatonin<\/a> increases at night and is associated with becoming sleepy. Your natural daily rhythm, or <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-circadian-rhythm\" title=\"\">Circadian Rhythm<\/a>, can be influenced by the amount of daylight to which you are exposed as well as your work and activity schedule. Changing your location, such as flying from Canada to England, can disrupt your natural sleep rhythms, and we call this <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-jet-lag\" title=\"\">jet lag<\/a>. You can overcome jet lag by synchronizing yourself to the local schedule by exposing yourself to daylight and forcing yourself to stay awake even though you are naturally sleepy.\n\nInterestingly, sleep itself is more than shutting off for the night (or for a nap). Instead of turning off like a light with a flick of a switch, your shift in consciousness is reflected in your brain\u2019s electrical activity. While you are awake and alert your brain activity is marked by <em>beta<\/em> waves. Beta waves are characterized by being high in frequency but low in intensity. In addition, they are the most inconsistent brain wave and this reflects the wide variation in sensory input that a person processes during the day. As you begin to relax these change to <em>alpha<\/em> waves. These waves reflect brain activity that is less frequent, more consistent and more intense. As you slip into actual sleep you transition through many stages.&nbsp;Scholars differ on how they characterize sleep stages with some experts arguing that there are four distinct stages (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-27\" title=\"\">Manoach et al., 2010<\/a>), while others recognize five (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-28\" title=\"\">\u0160u\u0161m\u00e1kov\u00e1, &amp; Krakovsk\u00e1, 2008<\/a>)&nbsp;but they all&nbsp;distinguish between those that include rapid eye movement (REM) and those that are non-rapid eye movement (NREM). In addition, each stage is typically characterized by its own unique pattern of brain activity:\n\n<ul><li>Stage 1 (called NREM 1, or N1)&nbsp;is the \"falling asleep\" stage and is marked by theta waves.<\/li><li>Stage 2 (called NREM 2, or N2)&nbsp;is considered a light sleep. Here, there are occasional \u201csleep spindles,\u201d or very high intensity brain waves. These are thought to be associated with the processing of memories. NREM 2 makes up about 55% of all sleep.<\/li><li>Stage 3 (called NREM 3, or N3) makes up between 20-25% of all sleep and&nbsp;is marked by greater muscle relaxation and the appearance of delta waves.<\/li><li>Finally, REM sleep is marked by rapid eye movement (REM). Interestingly, this stage\u2014in terms of brain activity\u2014is similar to wakefulness. That is, the brain waves occur less intensely than in other stages of sleep. REM sleep accounts for about 20% of all sleep and is associated with dreaming.<\/li><\/ul><figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/790\/original.jpg\" alt=\"Image accompanies the previously listed stages of sleep\" title=\"Image accompanies the previously listed stages of sleep\" longdesc=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness\"><figcaption>Figure 1. Changes in brain activity or brainwaves across different stages of consciousness \u2013 from being awake and throughout various stages of sleep. [Image: Noba]<\/figcaption><\/figure>Dreams are, arguably, the most interesting aspect of sleep. Throughout history dreams have been given special importance because of their unique, almost mystical nature. They have been thought to be predictions of the future, hints of hidden aspects of the self, important lessons about how to live life, or opportunities to engage in impossible deeds like flying. There are several competing theories of why humans dream. One is that it is our nonconscious attempt to make sense of our daily experiences and learning. Another, popularized by Freud, is that dreams represent taboo or troublesome wishes or desires. Regardless of the specific reason we know a few facts about dreams: all humans dream, we dream at every stage of sleep, but dreams during REM sleep are especially vivid. One under-explored area of dream research is the possible social functions of dreams: we often share our dreams with others and use them for entertainment value.\n\nSleep serves many functions, one of which is to give us a period of mental and physical restoration. Children generally need more sleep than adults since they are developing. It is so vital, in fact, that a lack of sleep is associated with a wide range of problems. People who do not receive adequate sleep are more irritable, have slower reaction time, have more difficulty sustaining attention, and make poorer decisions. Interestingly, this is an issue relevant to the lives of college students. In one highly cited study researchers found that 1 in 5 students took more than 30 minutes to fall asleep at night, 1 in 10 occasionally took sleep medications, and more than half reported being \u201cmostly tired\u201d in the mornings (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-4\" title=\"\">Buboltz, et al, 2001<\/a>).\n\n<h2 id=\"psychoactive-drugs\"><em>Psychoactive Drugs<\/em><\/h2>On April 16, 1943, Albert Hoffman\u2014a Swiss chemist working in a pharmaceutical company\u2014accidentally ingested a newly synthesized drug. The drug\u2014lysergic acid diethylimide (LSD)\u2014turned out to be a powerful hallucinogen. Hoffman went home and later reported the effects of the drug, describing them as seeing the world through a \u201cwarped mirror\u201d and experiencing visions of \u201cextraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors.\u201d Hoffman had discovered what members of many traditional cultures around the world already knew: there are substances that, when ingested, can have a powerful effect on perception and on consciousness.\n\nDrugs operate on human physiology in a variety of ways and researchers and medical doctors tend to classify drugs according to their effects. Here we will briefly cover 3 categories of drugs: hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants.\n\n<h2 id=\"hallucinogens\">Hallucinogens<\/h2>It is possible that hallucinogens are the substance that have, historically, been used the most widely. Traditional societies have used plant-based hallucinogens such as peyote, ebene, and psilocybin mushrooms in a wide range of religious ceremonies. <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hallucinogens\" title=\"\">Hallucinogens<\/a> are substances that alter a person\u2019s perceptions, often by creating visions or hallucinations that are not real. There are a wide range of hallucinogens and many are used as recreational substances in industrialized societies. Common examples include marijuana, LSD, and MDMA (also known as \u201cecstasy\u201d). Marijuana is the dried flowers of the hemp plant and is often smoked to produce<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-euphoria\" title=\"\">euphoria<\/a>. The active ingredient in marijuana is called THC and can produce distortions in the perception of time, can create a sense of rambling, unrelated thoughts, and is sometimes associated with increased hunger or excessive laughter. The use and possession of marijuana is illegal in most places but this appears to be a trend that is changing. Uruguay, Bangladesh, and several of the United States, have recently legalized marijuana. This may be due, in part, to changing public attitudes or to the fact that marijuana is increasingly used for medical purposes such as the management of nausea or treating glaucoma.\n\n<h2 id=\"depressants\">Depressants<\/h2><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-depressants\" title=\"\">Depressants<\/a> are substances that, as their name suggests, slow down the body\u2019s physiology and mental processes. Alcohol is the most widely used depressant. Alcohol\u2019s effects include the reduction of inhibition, meaning that intoxicated people are more likely to act in ways they would otherwise be reluctant to. Alcohol\u2019s psychological effects are the result of it increasing the neurotransmitter GABA. There are also physical effects, such as loss of balance and coordination, and these stem from the way that alcohol interferes with the coordination of the visual and motor systems of the brain. Despite the fact that alcohol is so widely accepted in many cultures it is also associated with a variety of dangers. First, alcohol is toxic, meaning that it acts like a poison because it is possible to drink more alcohol than the body can effectively remove from the bloodstream. When a person\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-blood-alcohol-content-bac\" title=\"\">blood alcohol content (BAC)<\/a> reaches .3 to .4% there is a serious risk of death. Second, the lack of judgment and physical control associated with alcohol is associated with more risk taking behavior or dangerous behavior such as drunk driving. Finally, alcohol is addictive and heavy drinkers often experience significant interference with their ability to work effectively or in their close relationships.\n\nOther common depressants include opiates (also called \u201cnarcotics\u201d), which are substances synthesized from the poppy flower. Opiates stimulate endorphin production in the brain and because of this they are often used as pain killers by medical professionals. Unfortunately, because opiates such as Oxycontin so reliably produce euphoria they are increasingly used\u2014illegally\u2014as recreational substances. Opiates are highly addictive.\n\n<h2 id=\"stimulants\">Stimulants<\/h2><figure><img src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/787\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A cup of black coffee.\" title=\"A cup of black coffee.\"><figcaption>Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant in the world. Be honest, how many cups of coffee, tea, or energy drinks have you had today? [Image: Personeelsnet, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/h0GQ3R,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/h0GQ3R,<\/a> CC BY-SA 2.0, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/iZlxAE%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/iZlxAE]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-stimulants\" title=\"\">Stimulants<\/a> are substances that \u201cspeed up\u201d the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes. Two commonly used stimulants are caffeine\u2014the drug found in coffee and tea\u2014and nicotine, the active drug in cigarettes and other tobacco products. These substances are both legal and relatively inexpensive, leading to their widespread use. Many people are attracted to stimulants because they feel more alert when under the influence of these drugs. As with any drug there are health risks associated with consumption. For example, excessive consumption of these types of stimulants can result in anxiety, headaches, and insomnia. Similarly, smoking cigarettes\u2014the most common means of ingesting nicotine\u2014is associated with higher risks of cancer. For instance, among heavy smokers 90% of lung cancer is directly attributable to smoking (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-19\" title=\"\">Stewart &amp; Kleihues, 2003<\/a>).\n\nThere are other stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine (also known as \u201ccrystal meth\u201d or \u201cice\u201d) that are illegal substances that are commonly used. These substances act by blocking \u201cre-uptake\u201d of dopamine in the brain. This means that the brain does not naturally clear out the dopamine and that it builds up in the synapse, creating euphoria and alertness. As the effects wear off it stimulates strong cravings for more of the drug. Because of this these powerful stimulants are highly addictive.\n\n<h1 id=\"conclusion\">Conclusion<\/h1>When you think about your daily life it is easy to get lulled into the belief that there is one \u201csetting\u201d for your conscious thought. That is, you likely believe that you hold the same opinions, values, and memories across the day and throughout the week. But \u201cyou\u201d are like a dimmer switch on a light that can be turned from full darkness increasingly on up to full brightness. This switch is consciousness. At your brightest setting you are fully alert and aware; at dimmer settings you are day dreaming; and sleep or being knocked unconscious represent dimmer settings still. The degree to which you are in high, medium, or low states of conscious awareness affect how susceptible you are to persuasion, how clear your judgment is, and how much detail you can recall. Understanding levels of awareness, then, is at the heart of understanding how we learn, decide, remember and many other vital psychological processes.\n\n<\/section><section><h2 id=\"adaptive-learning\">Take a Quiz<\/h2><form id=\"adaptive-learning-form\" action=\"https:\/\/cerego.com\/lti\/study\/758750\" method=\"post\" target=\"ceregoIframe\"><\/form>Testing yourself regularly is one of the most effective ways to strengthen your learning. Frequent testing helps you identify what you know and don\u2019t know so you can allocate your study time wisely. It also helps you retain information in memory for longer periods of time.\n\nBelow you\u2019ll find a 20-item quiz covering the main concepts found in this module. We suggest you start by learning 10 items. When the first session is complete you can either learn the final 10 items in a new session, review items from the first session, or return later.\n\n<strong>To begin the quiz, click the \"Start Learning\" button.<\/strong> You can return to this quiz anytime to refresh your knowledge.\n\n\n\n<\/section><section><h2 id=\"outside-resources\">Outside Resources<\/h2><dl class=\"noba-chapter-resources\"><dt>App: Visual illusions for the iPad.<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.exploratorium.edu\/explore\/apps\/color-uncovered\">http:\/\/www.exploratorium.edu\/explore\/apps\/color-uncovered<\/a><\/dd><dt>Book: A wonderful book about how little we know about ourselves: Wilson, T. D. (2004). <em>Strangers to ourselves<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674013827\">http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674013827<\/a><\/dd><dt>Book: Another wonderful book about free will\u2014or its absence?: Wegner, D. M. (2002). <em>The illusion of conscious will<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<\/dt><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/books\/illusion-conscious-will\">https:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/books\/illusion-conscious-will<\/a><\/dd><dt>Information on alcoholism, alcohol abuse, and treatment:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohol-health\/support-treatment\">http:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohol-health\/support-treatment<\/a><\/dd><dt>The American Psychological Association has information on getting a good night\u2019s sleep as well as on sleep disorders<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.apa.org\/helpcenter\/sleep-disorders.aspx\">http:\/\/www.apa.org\/helpcenter\/sleep-disorders.aspx<\/a><\/dd><dt>The LSD simulator: This simulator uses optical illusions to simulate the halluginogenic experience of LSD. Simply follow the instructions in this two minute video. After looking away you may see the world around you in a warped or pulsating way similar to the effects of LSD. The effect is temporary and will disappear in about a minute.<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>The National Sleep Foundation is a non-profit with videos on insomnia, sleep training in children, and other topics<\/dt><dd><a href=\"https:\/\/sleepfoundation.org\/video-library\">https:\/\/sleepfoundation.org\/video-library<\/a><\/dd><dt>Video: An artist who periodically took LSD and drew self-portraits:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.openculture.com\/2013\/10\/artist-draws-nine-portraits-on-lsd-during-1950s-research-experiment.html\">http:\/\/www.openculture.com\/2013\/10\/artist-draws-nine-portraits-on-lsd-during-1950s-research-experiment.html<\/a><\/dd><dt>Video: An interesting video on attention:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.dansimons.com\/videos.html\">http:\/\/www.dansimons.com\/videos.html<\/a><\/dd><dt>Video: Clip on out-of-body experiences induced using virtual reality.<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Clip on the rubber hand illusion, from the BBC science series \\\"Horizon.\\\"<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Clip showing a patient with blindsight, from the documentary \\\"Phantoms in the Brain.\\\"<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Demonstration of motion-induced blindness - Look steadily at the blue moving pattern. One or more of the yellow spots may disappear:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Howie Mandel from America's Got Talent being hypnotized into shaking hands with people:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Imaging the Brain, Reading the Mind - A talk by Marsel Mesulam.<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/video.at.northwestern.edu\/lores\/SO_marsel.m4v\">http:\/\/video.at.northwestern.edu\/lores\/SO_marsel.m4v<\/a><\/dd><dt>Video: Lucas Handwerker \u2013 a stage hypnotist discusses the therapeutic aspects of hypnosis:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: Ted Talk - Simon Lewis: Don\\'t take consciousness for granted<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/simon_lewis_don_t_take_consciousness_for_granted.html\">http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/simon_lewis_don_t_take_consciousness_for_granted.html<\/a><\/dd><dt>Video: TED Talk on Dream Research:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Video: The mind-body problem - An interview with Ned Block:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Want a quick demonstration of priming? (Want a quick demonstration of how powerful these effects can be? Check out:<\/dt><dd><div class=\"video\"><\/div><\/dd><dt>Web: A good overview of priming:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Priming_(psychology)\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Priming_(psychology)<\/a><\/dd><dt>Web: Definitions of Consciousness:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.consciousentities.com\/definitions.htm\">http:\/\/www.consciousentities.com\/definitions.htm<\/a><\/dd><dt>Web: Learn more about motion-induced blindness on Michael Bach\\'s website:<\/dt><dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.michaelbach.de\/ot\/mot-mib\/index.html\">http:\/\/www.michaelbach.de\/ot\/mot-mib\/index.html<\/a><\/dd><\/dl><\/section><section><h2 id=\"discussion-questions\">Discussion Questions<\/h2><ol><li>If someone were in a coma after an accident, and you wanted to better understand how \u201cconscious\u201d or aware s\/he were, how might you go about it?<\/li><li>What are some of the factors in daily life that interfere with people\u2019s ability to get adequate sleep? What interferes with your sleep?<\/li><li>How frequently do you remember your dreams? Do you have recurring images or themes in your dreams? Why do you think that is?<\/li><li>Consider times when you fantasize or let your mind wander? Describe these times: are you more likely to be alone or with others? Are there certain activities you engage in that seem particularly prone to daydreaming?<\/li><li>A number of traditional societies use consciousness altering substances in ceremonies. Why do you think they do this?<\/li><li>Do you think attitudes toward drug use are changing over time? If so, how? Why do you think these changes occur?<\/li><li>Students in high school and college are increasingly using stimulants such as Adderol as study aids and \u201cperformance enhancers.\u201d What is your opinion of this trend?<\/li><\/ol><\/section><section><h2 id=\"vocabulary\">Vocabulary<\/h2><dl class=\"noba-chapter-vocabulary\"><dt id=\"vocabulary-blood-alcohol-content-bac\">Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)<\/dt><dd>Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): a measure of the percentage of alcohol found in a person\u2019s blood. This measure is typically the standard used to determine the extent to which a person is intoxicated, as in the case of being too impaired to drive a vehicle.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-circadian-rhythm\">Circadian Rhythm<\/dt><dd>Circadian Rhythm: The physiological sleep-wake cycle. It is influenced by exposure to sunlight as well as daily schedule and activity. Biologically, it includes changes in body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-consciousness\">Consciousness<\/dt><dd>Consciousness: the awareness or deliberate perception of a stimulus<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-cues\">Cues<\/dt><dd>Cues: a stimulus that has a particular significance to the perceiver (e.g., a sight or a sound that has special relevance to the person who saw or heard it)<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-depressants\">Depressants<\/dt><dd>Depressants: a class of drugs that slow down the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-dissociation\">Dissociation<\/dt><dd>Dissociation: the heightened focus on one stimulus or thought such that many other things around you are ignored; a disconnect between one\u2019s awareness of their environment and the one object the person is focusing on<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-euphoria\">Euphoria<\/dt><dd>Euphoria: an intense feeling of pleasure, excitement or happiness.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-flexible-correction-model\">Flexible Correction Model<\/dt><dd>Flexible Correction Model: the ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe these judgments have been biased (e.g., if someone realizes they only thought their day was great because it was sunny, they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for this \u201cbiasing\u201d influence of the weather)<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-hallucinogens\">Hallucinogens<\/dt><dd>Hallucinogens: substances that, when ingested, alter a person\u2019s perceptions, often by creating hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-hypnosis\">Hypnosis<\/dt><dd>Hypnosis: the state of consciousness whereby a person is highly responsive to the suggestions of another; this state usually involves a dissociation with one\u2019s environment and an intense focus on a single stimulus, which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-hypnotherapy\">Hypnotherapy<\/dt><dd>Hypnotherapy: The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change such as lower pain or quitting smoking.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-implicit-associations-test\">Implicit Associations Test<\/dt><dd>Implicit Associations Test (IAT): A computer reaction time test that measures a person\u2019s automatic associations with concepts. For instance, the IAT could be used to measure how quickly a person makes positive or negative evaluations of members of various ethnic groups.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-jet-lag\">Jet Lag<\/dt><dd>Jet Lag: The state of being fatigued and\/or having difficulty adjusting to a new time zone after traveling a long distance (across multiple time zones).<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-melatonin\">Melatonin<\/dt><dd>Melatonin: A hormone associated with increased drowsiness and sleep.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-mindfulness\">Mindfulness<\/dt><dd>Mindfulness: a state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one\u2019s head, as well as a more controlled evaluation of those thoughts (e.g., do you reject or support the thoughts you\u2019re having?)<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-priming\">Priming<\/dt><dd>Priming: the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-stimulants\">Stimulants<\/dt><dd>Stimulants: a class of drugs that speed up the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes.<\/dd><dt id=\"vocabulary-trance-states\">Trance States<\/dt><dd>Trance: a state of consciousness characterized by the experience of \u201cout-of-body possession,\u201d or an acute dissociation between one\u2019s self and the current, physical environment surrounding them.<\/dd><\/dl><\/section><section><h2 id=\"references\">References<\/h2><ul class=\"noba-chapter-references\"><li id=\"reference-1\">Abbot, N. C., Stead, L. F., White, A. R., Barnes, J., &amp; Ernst, E. (1998). Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation. <em>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,<\/em> 2.<\/li><li id=\"reference-3\">Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., &amp; Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71<\/em>(2), 230.<\/li><li id=\"reference-4\">Buboltz, W., Brown, F. &amp; Soper, B. (2001). Sleep habits and patterns of college students: A preliminary study. <em>Journal of American College Health<\/em>, 50, 131-135.<\/li><li id=\"reference-26\">Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39<\/em>(5), 752.<\/li><li id=\"reference-6\">Ewin, D. M. (1978). <em>Clinical use of hypnosis for attenuation of burn depth. Hypnosis at its Bicentennial-Selected Papers from the Seventh International Congress of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine<\/em>. New York: Plenum Press.<\/li><li id=\"reference-7\">Freud, S. (2001). <em>The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams<\/em> (First Part) (Vol. 4). Random House.<\/li><li id=\"reference-8\">Gilbert, D. T., &amp; Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60<\/em>(4), 509.<\/li><li id=\"reference-9\">Greenwald, A. G., &amp; Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 79, 1022-1038.<\/li><li id=\"reference-10\">Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., &amp; Schwartz, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 74, 1464-1480.<\/li><li id=\"reference-11\">Kihlstrom, J.F. (2003). Hypnosis and memory. In J.F. Byrne (Ed.), <em>Learning and memory<\/em>, 2nd ed. (pp. 240-242). Farmington Hills, Mi.: Macmillan Reference<\/li><li id=\"reference-12\">Kirsch, I., &amp; Lynn, S. J. (1995). Altered state of hypnosis: Changes in the theoretical landscape. <em>American Psychologist, 50<\/em>(10), 846.<\/li><li id=\"reference-24\">Lynn S. J., and Kirsch I. (2006). <em>Essentials of clinical hypnosis<\/em>. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.<\/li><li id=\"reference-13\">Lynn, S. J., Rhue, J. W., &amp; Weekes, J. R. (1990). Hypnotic involuntariness: A social-cognitive analysis. <em>Psychological Review<\/em>, 97, 169\u2013184.<\/li><li id=\"reference-27\">Manoach, D. S., Thakkar, K. N., Stroynowski, E., Ely, A., McKinley, S. K., Wamsley, E., ... &amp; Stickgold, R. (2010). Reduced overnight consolidation of procedural learning in chronic medicated schizophrenia is related to specific sleep stages. <em>Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44<\/em>(2), 112-120.<\/li><li id=\"reference-14\">Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., &amp; Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. <em>Group Dynamics, 6<\/em>(1), 101-115.<\/li><li id=\"reference-16\">Patterson, D. R., Everett, J. J., Burns, G. L., &amp; Marvin, J. A. (1992). Hypnosis for the treatment of burn pain. <em>Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology<\/em>, 60, 713-17<\/li><li id=\"reference-17\">Pekala, R. J., Kumar, V. K., Maurer, R., Elliott-Carter, N., Moon, E., &amp; Mullen, K. (2010). Suggestibility, expectancy, trance state effects, and hypnotic depth: I. Implications for understanding hypnotism. <em>American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 52<\/em>(4), 275-290.<\/li><li id=\"reference-18\">Petty, R. E., &amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), <em>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology<\/em> (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York: Academic Press.<\/li><li id=\"reference-25\">Raichle, M. E. (2015). The brain's default mode network. <em>Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38<\/em>, 433-447.<\/li><li id=\"reference-19\">Stewart, B. &amp; Kleinhues, P. (2003). <em>World cancer report<\/em>. World Health Organization.<\/li><li id=\"reference-20\">Syrjala, K. L., Cummings, C., &amp; Donaldson, G. W. (1992). Hypnosis or cognitive behavioral training for the reduction of pain and nausea during cancer treatment: A controlled clinical trial. <em>Pain<\/em>, 48, 137-46.<\/li><li id=\"reference-21\">Wegener, D. T., &amp; Petty, R. E. (1997). The flexible correction model: The role of naive theories of bias in bias correction. <em>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology<\/em>, 29, 142-208.<\/li><li id=\"reference-22\">Wickramasekera II, I. E., &amp; Szlyk, J. (2003). Could empathy be a predictor of hypnotic ability?<em>International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 51<\/em>(4), 390\u2013399.<\/li><li id=\"reference-23\">Williams, L. E., &amp; Bargh, J. A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth. <em>Science, 322<\/em>(5901), 606-607.<\/li><li id=\"reference-15\">\u00d6hman, A., &amp; Soares, J. J. (1994). \\\"Unconscious anxiety\\\": phobic responses to masked stimuli. <em>Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103<\/em>(2), 231.<\/li><li id=\"reference-28\">\u0160u\u0161m\u00e1kov\u00e1, K., &amp; Krakovsk\u00e1, A. (2008). Discrimination ability of individual measures used in sleep stages classification. <em>Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 44<\/em>(3), 261-277.<\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h2 id=\"authors\">Authors<\/h2><ul class=\"media-list\"><li class=\"media\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"media-object noba-author pull-right\" height=\"150\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/author_photos\/000\/000\/154\/large.jpg\" width=\"150\"><div class=\"media-body\"><div class=\"media-heading\">Robert Biswas-Diener<\/div>Dr. Robert Biswas-Diener is a part-time instructor at Portland State University and is senior editor of Noba. He has more than 50 publications on happiness and other positive topics in peer-reviewed journals. He is author of The Upside of Your Dark Side.\n\n<\/div><\/li><li class=\"media\"><img alt=\"\" class=\"media-object noba-author pull-right\" height=\"150\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/author_photos\/000\/000\/155\/large.jpg\" width=\"150\"><div class=\"media-body\"><div class=\"media-heading\">Jake Teeny<\/div>Jake Teeny received his M.A. in social psychology from The Ohio State University, where he now pursuing a PhD. His research examines when and why people advocate their beliefs. In addition to his psychological work, he also writes short fiction, both of which can be found at www.jaketeeny.com\n\n<\/div><\/li><\/ul><\/section><section><h2 id=\"license\">Creative Commons License<\/h2><small class=\"license\"><a class=\"marks\" href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\"><img alt=\"Creative Commons\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/cc-7e377801d36ddb6d62c1c06dd07858f400efd7284459955e0de47bdb796c8658.png\" title=\"Creative Commons\"><img alt=\"Attribution\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/by-9be0271defac0fba0df496e1e35b7cd2aeaed8630b22b935ce2ea51380c98cba.png\" title=\"Attribution\"><img alt=\"Non-Commerical\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/nc-1f33b73ce264f326ba55092ac717ed56b21800b76bbd849859eacf7d9319745f.png\" title=\"Non-Commerical\"><img alt=\"Share-Alike\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/sa-1725398b2ebf51d6d0165a63b36061120a047cceed2a5be57cf3f99ad65c3668.png\" title=\"Share-Alike\"><\/a><span class=\"title\">States of Consciousness<\/span> by <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#authors\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Robert Biswas-Diener and Jake Teeny<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/license-agreement\" rel=\"cc:morePermissions\">Licensing Agreement<\/a>.<\/small>\n\n<\/section><section><h2 id=\"apa\">How to cite this Noba module using APA Style<\/h2>Biswas-Diener, R. &amp; Teeny, J. (2018). States of consciousness. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), <i>Noba textbook series: Psychology.<\/i> Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. DOI:<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nobaproject.com\/\">nobaproject.com<\/a>\n\n<\/section>","rendered":"<header id=\"abstract\">\n<h1 id=\"module-title\">States of Consciousness<\/h1>\n<p>By <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/authors\/robert-biswas-diener\" rel=\"author\">Robert Biswas-Diener<\/a> and <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/authors\/jake-teeny\" rel=\"author\">Jake Teeny<\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"text-muted\">Portland State University, The Ohio State University<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<section>\n<p class=\"lead\">No matter what you\u2019re doing&#8211;solving homework, playing a video game, simply picking out a shirt&#8211;all of your actions and decisions relate to your consciousness. But as frequently as we use it, have you ever stopped to ask yourself: What really is consciousness? In this module, we discuss the different levels of consciousness and how they can affect your behavior in a variety of situations. As well, we explore the role of consciousness in other, \u201caltered\u201d states like hypnosis and sleep.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<nav class=\"navbar noba-navbar-action\" role=\"toolbar\"><a class=\"btn btn-hollow btn-hollow-inverse btn-download navbar-btn pull-right download-module\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/module-editions\/2313\/download\" rel=\"nofollow\"><span class=\"fontello\">\ue812<span class=\"sr-only\">PDF<\/span><\/span> <span>Download<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"navbar-header\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"collapse navbar-collapse\" id=\"noba-navbar-action\">\n<div class=\"collapse-wrapper\">\n<ul class=\"nav navbar-nav\">\n<li><a class=\"share share-facebook\" href=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/sharer\/sharer.php?u=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Share on Facebook\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/facebook@2x-14b7f010fdaab7751eaff49c702d45851296a56967f4fbdc12170671bf594d7f.png\" title=\"Share on Facebook\" width=\"42\" \/><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"share share-twitter\" href=\"http:\/\/twitter.com\/intent\/tweet?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek&amp;text=This%20is%20the%20future%20of%20textbooks%3A%C2%A0States%20of%20Consciousness\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Share on Twitter\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/twitter@2x-f5c62500fccc964637cab4e89196b7c44e7ef64b8654ee123dfd48448232bd52.png\" title=\"Share on Twitter\" width=\"42\" \/><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"share share-google-plus\" href=\"https:\/\/plus.google.com\/share?url=http%3A%2F%2Fnoba.to%2Fxj2cbhek\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Share on Google Plus\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/google-plus@2x-49d3d8b3e6c5378a839977af10e546595592cdd567ba44fb611c4468b6309829.png\" title=\"Share on Google Plus\" width=\"42\" \/><\/a><\/li>\n<li><a class=\"share share-email\" href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#modal-email_98\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Share via Email\" height=\"42\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/social\/share\/email@2x-a8982d45249ff3b3e437d1f1125dd1faf1e5649f091e9c7eabfb1a8a1a3c4521.png\" title=\"Share via Email\" width=\"42\" \/><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<form class=\"navbar-form navbar-left share share-url\" action=\"action\">\n<div><label class=\"sr-only\">Share this URL<\/label><\/div>\n<\/form>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/nav>\n<section id=\"tags\">\n<ul class=\"tags\">\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=21\">Awareness<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=531\">bias<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=41\">Consciousness<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=532\">Hypnosis<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=42\">Priming<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=139\">Sleep<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/browse-content?tags=533\">Trance<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"learning-objectives\">Learning Objectives<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Define consciousness and distinguish between high and low conscious states<\/li>\n<li>Explain the relationship between consciousness and bias<\/li>\n<li>Understand the difference between popular portrayals of hypnosis and how it is currently used therapeutically<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"content\">\n<h1 id=\"introduction\">Introduction<\/h1>\n<p>Have you ever had a fellow motorist stopped beside you at a red light, singing his brains out, or picking his nose, or otherwise behaving in ways he might not normally do in public? There is something about being alone in a car that encourages people to zone out and forget that others can see them. Although these little lapses of attention are amusing for the rest of us, they are also instructive when it comes to the topic of consciousness.<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/131\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A young man sits behind the wheel of a car with his eyes closed as he sings along with the radio.\" title=\"A young man sits behind the wheel of a car with his eyes closed as he sings along with the radio.\" \/><figcaption>This guy is singing his heart out in his one-man mobile music studio. Have you ever done this? [Image: Joshua Ommen, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Za97c3,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Za97c3,<\/a> CC BY-NC-SA 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Toc0ZF%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Toc0ZF]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-consciousness\" title=\"\">Consciousness<\/a> is a term meant to indicate awareness. It includes awareness of the self, of bodily sensations, of thoughts and of the environment. In English, we use the opposite word \u201cunconscious\u201d to indicate senselessness or a barrier to awareness, as in the case of \u201cTheresa fell off the ladder and hit her head, knocking herself unconscious.\u201d And yet, psychological theory and research suggest that consciousness and unconsciousness are more complicated than falling off a ladder. That is, consciousness is more than just being \u201con\u201d or \u201coff.\u201d For instance, Sigmund Freud (1856 \u2013 1939)\u2014a psychological theorist\u2014understood that even while we are awake, many things lay outside the realm of our conscious awareness (like being in the car and forgetting the rest of the world can see into your windows). In response to this notion, Freud introduced the concept of the \u201csubconscious\u201d (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-7\" title=\"\">Freud, 2001<\/a>) and proposed that some of our memories and even our basic motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds.<\/p>\n<p>Upon reflection, it is easy to see how slippery a topic consciousness is. For example, are people conscious when they are&nbsp;daydreaming? What about when they are&nbsp;drunk? In this module, we will describe several levels of consciousness and then discuss altered states of consciousness such as hypnosis and sleep.<\/p>\n<h1 id=\"levels-of-awareness\">Levels of Awareness<\/h1>\n<p>In 1957, a marketing researcher inserted the words \u201cEat Popcorn\u201d onto one frame of a film being shown all across the United States. And although that frame was only projected onto the movie&nbsp;screen for 1\/24th of a second\u2014a speed too fast to be perceived by conscious awareness\u2014the researcher reported an increase in popcorn sales by nearly 60%. Almost immediately, all forms of \u201csubliminal messaging\u201d were regulated in the US and banned in countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom. Even though it was later shown that the researcher had made up the data (he hadn\u2019t even inserted the words into the film), this fear about influences on our subconscious persists. At its heart, this issue pits various levels of awareness against one another. On the one hand, we have the \u201clow awareness\u201d of subtle, even subliminal influences. On the other hand, there is you\u2014the conscious thinking, feeling you which includes all that you are currently aware of, even reading this sentence. However, when we consider these different levels of awareness separately, we can better understand how they operate.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"low-awareness\"><em>Low Awareness<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>You are constantly receiving and evaluating sensory information. Although each moment has too many sights, smells, and sounds for them all to be consciously considered, our brains are nonetheless processing all that information. For example, have you ever been at a party, overwhelmed by all the people and conversation, when out of nowhere you hear your name called? Even though you have no idea what else the person is saying, you are somehow conscious of your name (for more on this, \u201cthe cocktail party effect,\u201d see Noba\u2019s Module on Attention). So, even though you may not be <em>aware<\/em> of various stimuli in your environment, your brain is paying closer attention than you think.<\/p>\n<p>Similar to a reflex (like jumping when startled), some <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-cues\" title=\"\">cues<\/a>, or significant sensory information, will automatically elicit a response from us even though we never consciously perceive it. For example, \u00d6hman and Soares (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-15\" title=\"\">1994<\/a>) measured subtle variations in sweating of participants with a fear of snakes. The researchers flashed pictures of different objects (e.g., mushrooms, flowers, and most importantly, snakes) on a screen in front of them, but did so at speeds that left the participant clueless as to what he or she had actually seen. However, when snake pictures were flashed, these participants started sweating more (i.e., a sign of fear), even though they had no idea what they\u2019d just viewed!<\/p>\n<p>Although our brains perceive some stimuli without our conscious awareness, do they really affect our subsequent thoughts and behaviors? In a landmark study, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-3\" title=\"\">Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996)<\/a> had participants solve a word search puzzle where the answers pertained to words about the elderly (e.g., \u201cold,\u201d \u201cgrandma\u201d) or something random (e.g., \u201cnotebook,\u201d \u201ctomato\u201d). Afterward, the researchers secretly measured how fast the participants walked down the hallway exiting the experiment. And although none of the participants were aware of a theme to the answers, those who had solved a puzzle with elderly words (vs. those with other types of words) walked more slowly down the hallway!<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/785\/original.jpg\" alt=\"image\" \/><figcaption><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This effect is called&nbsp;<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-priming\" title=\"\">priming<\/a> (i.e., readily \u201cactivating\u201d certain concepts and associations from one\u2019s memory) has been found in a number of other studies. For example, priming people by having them drink from a warm glass (vs. a cold one) resulted in behaving more \u201cwarmly\u201d toward others (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-23\" title=\"\">Williams &amp; Bargh, 2008<\/a>). Although all of these influences occur beneath one\u2019s conscious awareness, they still have a significant effect on one\u2019s subsequent thoughts and behaviors.<\/p>\n<p>In the last two decades, researchers have made advances in studying aspects of psychology that exist beyond conscious awareness. As you can understand, it is difficult to use self-reports and surveys to ask people about motives or beliefs that they, themselves, might not even be aware of! One way of side-stepping this difficulty can be found in the <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-implicit-associations-test\" title=\"\">implicit associations test<\/a>, or IAT (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-10\" title=\"\">Greenwald, McGhee &amp; Schwartz, 1998<\/a>). This research method uses computers to assess people\u2019s reaction times to various stimuli and is a very difficult test to fake because it records automatic reactions that occur in milliseconds. For instance, to shed light on deeply held biases, the IAT might present photographs of Caucasian faces and Asian faces while asking research participants to click buttons indicating either \u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d as quickly as possible. Even if the participant clicks \u201cgood\u201d for every face shown, the IAT can still pick up tiny delays in responding. Delays are associated with more mental effort needed to process information. When information is processed quickly\u2014as in the example of white faces being judged as \u201cgood\u201d\u2014it can be contrasted with slower processing\u2014as in the example of Asian faces being judged as \u201cgood\u201d\u2014and the difference in processing speed is reflective of bias. In this regard, the IAT has been used for investigating stereotypes (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-14\" title=\"\">Nosek, Banaji &amp; Greenwald, 2002<\/a>) as well as self-esteem (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-9\" title=\"\">Greenwald &amp; Farnam, 2000<\/a>).&nbsp;This method can help uncover non-conscious biases as well as those that we are motivated to suppress.<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/784\/original.png\" alt=\"A screenshot shows a portion of the Implicit Associations Test. At the center a photo of a black man's face, from just above the eyebrows to just above the mouth, can be seen. At the top left corner the words &quot;African American or Good&quot; appear. At the top right the words &quot;European American or Bad&quot; appear. At the bottom of the screen the following instructions appear, &quot;If the keys do not work, click the mouse inside the white box and try again. If the red X appears, press the other key to make the red X go away.&quot;\" title=\"A screenshot shows a portion of the Implicit Associations Test. At the center a photo of a black man's face, from just above the eyebrows to just above the mouth, can be seen. At the top left corner the words &quot;African American or Good&quot; appear. At the top right the words &quot;European American or Bad&quot; appear. At the bottom of the screen the following instructions appear, &quot;If the keys do not work, click the mouse inside the white box and try again. If the red X appears, press the other key to make the red X go away.&quot;\" \/><figcaption>An actual screenshot from an IAT (Implicit Association Test) that a person might take to test their own mental representations of various cognitive constructs. In this particular case, this is an item testing an individual\u2019s unconscious reaction towards members of various ethnic groups. [Image: Courtesy of Anthony Greenwald from Project Implicit]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"high-awareness\"><em>High Awareness<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>Just because we may be influenced by these \u201cinvisible\u201d factors, it doesn\u2019t mean we are helplessly controlled by them. The other side of the awareness continuum is known as \u201chigh awareness.\u201d This includes effortful attention and careful decision making. For example, when you listen to a funny story on a date, or consider which class schedule would be preferable, or complete a complex math problem, you are engaging a state of consciousness that allows you to be highly aware of and focused on particular details in your environment.<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/364\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A young man sits in the lotus position meditating.\" title=\"A young man sits in the lotus position meditating.\" \/><figcaption>Meditation has been practiced for centuries in religious contexts. In the past 50 years it has become increasingly popular as a secular practice. Scientific studies have linked meditation to lower stress and higher well-being. [Image: Indrek Torilo,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/Bc5Iwm,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/Bc5Iwm,<\/a> CC BY-NC 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-mindfulness\" title=\"\">Mindfulness<\/a> is a state of higher consciousness that includes an&nbsp;awareness of the thoughts passing through one\u2019s head. For example, have you ever snapped at someone in frustration, only to take a moment and reflect on why you responded so aggressively? This more effortful consideration of your thoughts could be described as an expansion of your conscious awareness as you take the time to consider the possible influences on your thoughts. Research has shown that when you engage in this more deliberate consideration, you are less persuaded by irrelevant yet biasing influences, like the presence of a celebrity in an advertisement (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-18\" title=\"\">Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986<\/a>). Higher awareness is also associated with recognizing when you\u2019re using a stereotype, rather than fairly evaluating another person (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-8\" title=\"\">Gilbert &amp; Hixon, 1991<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Humans alternate between low and high thinking states. That is, we shift between focused attention and a less attentive default sate, and we have neural networks for both (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-25\" title=\"\">Raichle, 2015<\/a>). Interestingly, the the less we\u2019re paying attention, the more likely we are to be influenced by non-conscious stimuli (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-26\" title=\"\">Chaiken, 1980<\/a>).&nbsp; Although these subtle influences may affect us, we can use our higher conscious awareness to protect against external influences. In what\u2019s known as the <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-flexible-correction-model\" title=\"\">Flexible Correction Model<\/a>(<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-21\" title=\"\">Wegener &amp; Petty, 1997<\/a>), people who are aware that their thoughts or behavior are being influenced by an undue, outside source, can correct their attitude against the bias. For example, you might be aware that you are influenced by mention of specific political parties. If you were motivated to consider a government policy you can take your own biases into account to attempt to consider the policy in a fair way (on its own merits rather than being attached to a certain party).<\/p>\n<p>To help make the relationship between lower and higher consciousness clearer, imagine the brain is like a journey down a river.&nbsp;&nbsp;In low awareness, you simply float on a small rubber&nbsp;raft and let the currents push you. It&#8217;s not very difficult to just drift along&nbsp;but you also don&#8217;t have total control. Higher states of consciousness are more like traveling in a canoe. In this scenario, you have a paddle and can steer, but it requires more effort.&nbsp;This analogy applies to many states of consciousness, but not all. What about other states such as&nbsp;like sleeping, daydreaming, or hypnosis? How are these related to our conscious awareness?<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/783\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A summary of the costs and benefits of high and low awareness as discussed in the text.\" title=\"A summary of the costs and benefits of high and low awareness as discussed in the text.\" \/><figcaption>Table 1: States of Consciousness<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1 id=\"other-states-of-consciousness\">Other States of Consciousness<\/h1>\n<h2 id=\"hypnosis\"><em>Hypnosis<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>If you\u2019ve ever watched a stage hypnotist perform, it may paint a misleading portrait of this state of consciousness. The hypnotized people on stage, for example, appear to be in a state similar to sleep. However, as the hypnotist continues with the show, you would recognize some profound differences between sleep and hypnosis. Namely, when you\u2019re asleep, hearing the word \u201cstrawberry\u201d doesn\u2019t make you flap your arms like a chicken. In stage performances, the hypnotized participants appear to be highly suggestible, to the point that they are seemingly under the hypnotist\u2019s control. Such performances are entertaining but have a way of sensationalizing the true nature of hypnotic states.<\/p>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/365\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A stage hypnotist holds his hand over the head of a volunteer who falls limp into the arms of the hypnotist's assistant. A group of volunteers seem to be unconscious in their seats in the background.\" title=\"A stage hypnotist holds his hand over the head of a volunteer who falls limp into the arms of the hypnotist's assistant. A group of volunteers seem to be unconscious in their seats in the background.\" \/><figcaption>People being hypnotized on stage. [Image: New Media Expo, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FWgBqs,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FWgBqs,<\/a> CC BY-NC-SA 2.0,<a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Hypnosis is an actual, documented phenomenon\u2014one that has been studied and debated for over 200 years (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-17\" title=\"\">Pekala et al., 2010<\/a>). Franz Mesmer (1734 \u2013 1815) is often credited as among the first people to \u201cdiscover\u201d hypnosis, which he used to treat members of elite society who were experiencing psychological distress. It is from Mesmer\u2019s name that we get the English word, \u201cmesmerize\u201d meaning \u201cto entrance or transfix a person\u2019s attention.\u201d Mesmer attributed the effect of hypnosis to \u201canimal magnetism,\u201d a supposed universal force (similar to gravity) that operates through all human bodies. Even at the time, such an account of hypnosis was not scientifically supported, and Mesmer himself was frequently the center of controversy.<\/p>\n<p>Over the years, researchers have proposed that <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hypnosis\" title=\"\">hypnosis<\/a> is a mental state characterized by reduced peripheral awareness and increased focus on a singular stimulus, which results in an enhanced susceptibility to suggestion (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-11\" title=\"\">Kihlstrom, 2003<\/a>). For example, the hypnotist will usually induce hypnosis by getting the person to pay attention only to the hypnotist\u2019s voice. As the individual focuses more and more on that, s\/he begins to forget the context of the setting and responds to the hypnotist\u2019s suggestions as if they were his or her own. Some people are naturally more suggestible, and therefore more \u201chypnotizable\u201d than are others, and this is especially true for those who score high in empathy (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-22\" title=\"\">Wickramasekera II &amp; Szlyk, 2003<\/a>). One common \u201ctrick\u201d of stage hypnotists is to discard volunteers who are less suggestible than others.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-dissociation\" title=\"\">Dissociation<\/a> is the separation of one\u2019s awareness from everything besides what one is centrally focused on. For example, if you\u2019ve ever been daydreaming in class, you were likely so caught up in the fantasy that you didn\u2019t hear a word the teacher said. During hypnosis, this dissociation becomes even more extreme. That is, a person concentrates so much on the words of the hypnotist that s\/he loses perspective of the rest of the world around them. As a consequence of dissociation, a person is less effortful, and less self-conscious in consideration of his or her own thoughts and behaviors. Similar to low awareness states, where one often acts on the first thought that comes to mind, so, too, in hypnosis does the individual simply follow the first thought that comes to mind, i.e., the hypnotist\u2019s suggestion. Still, just because one is more susceptible to suggestion under hypnosis, it doesn\u2019t mean s\/he will do anything that\u2019s ordered. To be hypnotized, you must first <em>want<\/em> to be hypnotized (i.e., you can\u2019t be hypnotized against your will; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-24\" title=\"\">Lynn &amp; Kirsh, 2006<\/a>), and once you are hypnotized, you won\u2019t do anything you wouldn\u2019t also do while in a more natural state of consciousness (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-13\" title=\"\">Lynn, Rhue, &amp; Weekes, 1990<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>Today, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hypnotherapy\" title=\"\">hypnotherapy<\/a> is still used in a variety of formats, and it has evolved from Mesmer\u2019s early tinkering with the concept. Modern hypnotherapy often uses a combination of relaxation, suggestion, motivation and expectancies to create a desired mental or behavioral state. Although there is mixed evidence on whether hypnotherapy can help with addiction reduction (e.g., quitting smoking; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-1\" title=\"\">Abbot et al., 1998<\/a>) there is some evidence that it can be successful in treating sufferers of acute and chronic pain (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-6\" title=\"\">Ewin, 1978<\/a>; <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-20\" title=\"\">Syrjala et al., 1992<\/a>). For example, one study examined the treatment of burn patients with either hypnotherapy, pseudo-hypnosis (i.e., a placebo condition), or no treatment at all. Afterward, even though people in the placebo condition experienced a 16% decrease in pain, those in the actual hypnosis condition experienced a reduction of nearly 50% (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-16\" title=\"\">Patterson et al., 1996<\/a>). Thus, even though hypnosis may be sensationalized for television and movies, its ability to disassociate a person from their environment (or their pain) in conjunction with increased suggestibility to a clinician\u2019s recommendations (e.g., \u201cyou will feel less anxiety about your chronic pain\u201d) is a documented practice with actual medical benefits.<\/p>\n<p>Now, similar to hypnotic states, <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-trance-states\" title=\"\">trance states<\/a> also involve a dissociation of the self; however, people in a trance state are said to have less voluntary control over their behaviors and actions. Trance states often occur in religious ceremonies, where the person believes he or she is \u201cpossessed\u201d by an otherworldly being or force. While in trance, people report anecdotal accounts of a \u201chigher consciousness\u201d or communion with a greater power. However, the body of research investigating this phenomenon tends to reject the claim that these experiences constitute an \u201caltered state of consciousness.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Most researchers today describe both hypnosis and trance states as \u201csubjective\u201d alterations of consciousness, not an actually distinct or evolved form (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-12\" title=\"\">Kirsch &amp; Lynn, 1995<\/a>). Just like you feel different when you\u2019re in a state of deep relaxation, so, too, are hypnotic and trance states simply shifts from the standard conscious experience. Researchers contend that even though both hypnotic and trance states appear and feel wildly different than the normal human experience, they can be explained by standard socio-cognitive factors like imagination, expectation, and the interpretation of the situation.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"sleep\"><em>Sleep<\/em><\/h2>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/366\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A man dressed in pajamas sits up in bed as he stretches and yawns.\" title=\"A man dressed in pajamas sits up in bed as he stretches and yawns.\" \/><figcaption>Sleep is necessary in order for people to function well. [Image: jaci XIII, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/pog6Fr,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/pog6Fr,<\/a> CC BY-NC 2.0, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/FIlc2e]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>You may have experienced the sensation&#8211; as you are falling asleep&#8211; of falling and then found yourself physically jerking forward and grabbing out as if you were really falling. Sleep is a unique state of consciousness; it lacks full awareness but the brain is still active. People generally follow a \u201cbiological clock\u201d that impacts when they naturally become drowsy, when they fall asleep, and the time they naturally awaken. The hormone<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-melatonin\" title=\"\">melatonin<\/a> increases at night and is associated with becoming sleepy. Your natural daily rhythm, or <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-circadian-rhythm\" title=\"\">Circadian Rhythm<\/a>, can be influenced by the amount of daylight to which you are exposed as well as your work and activity schedule. Changing your location, such as flying from Canada to England, can disrupt your natural sleep rhythms, and we call this <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-jet-lag\" title=\"\">jet lag<\/a>. You can overcome jet lag by synchronizing yourself to the local schedule by exposing yourself to daylight and forcing yourself to stay awake even though you are naturally sleepy.<\/p>\n<p>Interestingly, sleep itself is more than shutting off for the night (or for a nap). Instead of turning off like a light with a flick of a switch, your shift in consciousness is reflected in your brain\u2019s electrical activity. While you are awake and alert your brain activity is marked by <em>beta<\/em> waves. Beta waves are characterized by being high in frequency but low in intensity. In addition, they are the most inconsistent brain wave and this reflects the wide variation in sensory input that a person processes during the day. As you begin to relax these change to <em>alpha<\/em> waves. These waves reflect brain activity that is less frequent, more consistent and more intense. As you slip into actual sleep you transition through many stages.&nbsp;Scholars differ on how they characterize sleep stages with some experts arguing that there are four distinct stages (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-27\" title=\"\">Manoach et al., 2010<\/a>), while others recognize five (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-28\" title=\"\">\u0160u\u0161m\u00e1kov\u00e1, &amp; Krakovsk\u00e1, 2008<\/a>)&nbsp;but they all&nbsp;distinguish between those that include rapid eye movement (REM) and those that are non-rapid eye movement (NREM). In addition, each stage is typically characterized by its own unique pattern of brain activity:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Stage 1 (called NREM 1, or N1)&nbsp;is the &#8220;falling asleep&#8221; stage and is marked by theta waves.<\/li>\n<li>Stage 2 (called NREM 2, or N2)&nbsp;is considered a light sleep. Here, there are occasional \u201csleep spindles,\u201d or very high intensity brain waves. These are thought to be associated with the processing of memories. NREM 2 makes up about 55% of all sleep.<\/li>\n<li>Stage 3 (called NREM 3, or N3) makes up between 20-25% of all sleep and&nbsp;is marked by greater muscle relaxation and the appearance of delta waves.<\/li>\n<li>Finally, REM sleep is marked by rapid eye movement (REM). Interestingly, this stage\u2014in terms of brain activity\u2014is similar to wakefulness. That is, the brain waves occur less intensely than in other stages of sleep. REM sleep accounts for about 20% of all sleep and is associated with dreaming.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/002\/790\/original.jpg\" alt=\"Image accompanies the previously listed stages of sleep\" title=\"Image accompanies the previously listed stages of sleep\" longdesc=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness\" \/><figcaption>Figure 1. Changes in brain activity or brainwaves across different stages of consciousness \u2013 from being awake and throughout various stages of sleep. [Image: Noba]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Dreams are, arguably, the most interesting aspect of sleep. Throughout history dreams have been given special importance because of their unique, almost mystical nature. They have been thought to be predictions of the future, hints of hidden aspects of the self, important lessons about how to live life, or opportunities to engage in impossible deeds like flying. There are several competing theories of why humans dream. One is that it is our nonconscious attempt to make sense of our daily experiences and learning. Another, popularized by Freud, is that dreams represent taboo or troublesome wishes or desires. Regardless of the specific reason we know a few facts about dreams: all humans dream, we dream at every stage of sleep, but dreams during REM sleep are especially vivid. One under-explored area of dream research is the possible social functions of dreams: we often share our dreams with others and use them for entertainment value.<\/p>\n<p>Sleep serves many functions, one of which is to give us a period of mental and physical restoration. Children generally need more sleep than adults since they are developing. It is so vital, in fact, that a lack of sleep is associated with a wide range of problems. People who do not receive adequate sleep are more irritable, have slower reaction time, have more difficulty sustaining attention, and make poorer decisions. Interestingly, this is an issue relevant to the lives of college students. In one highly cited study researchers found that 1 in 5 students took more than 30 minutes to fall asleep at night, 1 in 10 occasionally took sleep medications, and more than half reported being \u201cmostly tired\u201d in the mornings (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-4\" title=\"\">Buboltz, et al, 2001<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"psychoactive-drugs\"><em>Psychoactive Drugs<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>On April 16, 1943, Albert Hoffman\u2014a Swiss chemist working in a pharmaceutical company\u2014accidentally ingested a newly synthesized drug. The drug\u2014lysergic acid diethylimide (LSD)\u2014turned out to be a powerful hallucinogen. Hoffman went home and later reported the effects of the drug, describing them as seeing the world through a \u201cwarped mirror\u201d and experiencing visions of \u201cextraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors.\u201d Hoffman had discovered what members of many traditional cultures around the world already knew: there are substances that, when ingested, can have a powerful effect on perception and on consciousness.<\/p>\n<p>Drugs operate on human physiology in a variety of ways and researchers and medical doctors tend to classify drugs according to their effects. Here we will briefly cover 3 categories of drugs: hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"hallucinogens\">Hallucinogens<\/h2>\n<p>It is possible that hallucinogens are the substance that have, historically, been used the most widely. Traditional societies have used plant-based hallucinogens such as peyote, ebene, and psilocybin mushrooms in a wide range of religious ceremonies. <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-hallucinogens\" title=\"\">Hallucinogens<\/a> are substances that alter a person\u2019s perceptions, often by creating visions or hallucinations that are not real. There are a wide range of hallucinogens and many are used as recreational substances in industrialized societies. Common examples include marijuana, LSD, and MDMA (also known as \u201cecstasy\u201d). Marijuana is the dried flowers of the hemp plant and is often smoked to produce<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-euphoria\" title=\"\">euphoria<\/a>. The active ingredient in marijuana is called THC and can produce distortions in the perception of time, can create a sense of rambling, unrelated thoughts, and is sometimes associated with increased hunger or excessive laughter. The use and possession of marijuana is illegal in most places but this appears to be a trend that is changing. Uruguay, Bangladesh, and several of the United States, have recently legalized marijuana. This may be due, in part, to changing public attitudes or to the fact that marijuana is increasingly used for medical purposes such as the management of nausea or treating glaucoma.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"depressants\">Depressants<\/h2>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-depressants\" title=\"\">Depressants<\/a> are substances that, as their name suggests, slow down the body\u2019s physiology and mental processes. Alcohol is the most widely used depressant. Alcohol\u2019s effects include the reduction of inhibition, meaning that intoxicated people are more likely to act in ways they would otherwise be reluctant to. Alcohol\u2019s psychological effects are the result of it increasing the neurotransmitter GABA. There are also physical effects, such as loss of balance and coordination, and these stem from the way that alcohol interferes with the coordination of the visual and motor systems of the brain. Despite the fact that alcohol is so widely accepted in many cultures it is also associated with a variety of dangers. First, alcohol is toxic, meaning that it acts like a poison because it is possible to drink more alcohol than the body can effectively remove from the bloodstream. When a person\u2019s <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-blood-alcohol-content-bac\" title=\"\">blood alcohol content (BAC)<\/a> reaches .3 to .4% there is a serious risk of death. Second, the lack of judgment and physical control associated with alcohol is associated with more risk taking behavior or dangerous behavior such as drunk driving. Finally, alcohol is addictive and heavy drinkers often experience significant interference with their ability to work effectively or in their close relationships.<\/p>\n<p>Other common depressants include opiates (also called \u201cnarcotics\u201d), which are substances synthesized from the poppy flower. Opiates stimulate endorphin production in the brain and because of this they are often used as pain killers by medical professionals. Unfortunately, because opiates such as Oxycontin so reliably produce euphoria they are increasingly used\u2014illegally\u2014as recreational substances. Opiates are highly addictive.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"stimulants\">Stimulants<\/h2>\n<figure><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/images\/000\/001\/787\/original.jpg\" alt=\"A cup of black coffee.\" title=\"A cup of black coffee.\" \/><figcaption>Caffeine is the most widely consumed stimulant in the world. Be honest, how many cups of coffee, tea, or energy drinks have you had today? [Image: Personeelsnet, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/h0GQ3R,\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/h0GQ3R,<\/a> CC BY-SA 2.0, <a href=\"https:\/\/goo.gl\/iZlxAE%5D\">https:\/\/goo.gl\/iZlxAE]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#vocabulary-stimulants\" title=\"\">Stimulants<\/a> are substances that \u201cspeed up\u201d the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes. Two commonly used stimulants are caffeine\u2014the drug found in coffee and tea\u2014and nicotine, the active drug in cigarettes and other tobacco products. These substances are both legal and relatively inexpensive, leading to their widespread use. Many people are attracted to stimulants because they feel more alert when under the influence of these drugs. As with any drug there are health risks associated with consumption. For example, excessive consumption of these types of stimulants can result in anxiety, headaches, and insomnia. Similarly, smoking cigarettes\u2014the most common means of ingesting nicotine\u2014is associated with higher risks of cancer. For instance, among heavy smokers 90% of lung cancer is directly attributable to smoking (<a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#reference-19\" title=\"\">Stewart &amp; Kleihues, 2003<\/a>).<\/p>\n<p>There are other stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine (also known as \u201ccrystal meth\u201d or \u201cice\u201d) that are illegal substances that are commonly used. These substances act by blocking \u201cre-uptake\u201d of dopamine in the brain. This means that the brain does not naturally clear out the dopamine and that it builds up in the synapse, creating euphoria and alertness. As the effects wear off it stimulates strong cravings for more of the drug. Because of this these powerful stimulants are highly addictive.<\/p>\n<h1 id=\"conclusion\">Conclusion<\/h1>\n<p>When you think about your daily life it is easy to get lulled into the belief that there is one \u201csetting\u201d for your conscious thought. That is, you likely believe that you hold the same opinions, values, and memories across the day and throughout the week. But \u201cyou\u201d are like a dimmer switch on a light that can be turned from full darkness increasingly on up to full brightness. This switch is consciousness. At your brightest setting you are fully alert and aware; at dimmer settings you are day dreaming; and sleep or being knocked unconscious represent dimmer settings still. The degree to which you are in high, medium, or low states of conscious awareness affect how susceptible you are to persuasion, how clear your judgment is, and how much detail you can recall. Understanding levels of awareness, then, is at the heart of understanding how we learn, decide, remember and many other vital psychological processes.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"adaptive-learning\">Take a Quiz<\/h2>\n<form id=\"adaptive-learning-form\" action=\"https:\/\/cerego.com\/lti\/study\/758750\" method=\"post\" target=\"ceregoIframe\"><\/form>\n<p>Testing yourself regularly is one of the most effective ways to strengthen your learning. Frequent testing helps you identify what you know and don\u2019t know so you can allocate your study time wisely. It also helps you retain information in memory for longer periods of time.<\/p>\n<p>Below you\u2019ll find a 20-item quiz covering the main concepts found in this module. We suggest you start by learning 10 items. When the first session is complete you can either learn the final 10 items in a new session, review items from the first session, or return later.<\/p>\n<p><strong>To begin the quiz, click the &#8220;Start Learning&#8221; button.<\/strong> You can return to this quiz anytime to refresh your knowledge.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"outside-resources\">Outside Resources<\/h2>\n<dl class=\"noba-chapter-resources\">\n<dt>App: Visual illusions for the iPad.<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.exploratorium.edu\/explore\/apps\/color-uncovered\">http:\/\/www.exploratorium.edu\/explore\/apps\/color-uncovered<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Book: A wonderful book about how little we know about ourselves: Wilson, T. D. (2004). <em>Strangers to ourselves<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674013827\">http:\/\/www.hup.harvard.edu\/catalog.php?isbn=9780674013827<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Book: Another wonderful book about free will\u2014or its absence?: Wegner, D. M. (2002). <em>The illusion of conscious will<\/em>. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/books\/illusion-conscious-will\">https:\/\/mitpress.mit.edu\/books\/illusion-conscious-will<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Information on alcoholism, alcohol abuse, and treatment:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohol-health\/support-treatment\">http:\/\/www.niaaa.nih.gov\/alcohol-health\/support-treatment<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>The American Psychological Association has information on getting a good night\u2019s sleep as well as on sleep disorders<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.apa.org\/helpcenter\/sleep-disorders.aspx\">http:\/\/www.apa.org\/helpcenter\/sleep-disorders.aspx<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>The LSD simulator: This simulator uses optical illusions to simulate the halluginogenic experience of LSD. Simply follow the instructions in this two minute video. After looking away you may see the world around you in a warped or pulsating way similar to the effects of LSD. The effect is temporary and will disappear in about a minute.<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>The National Sleep Foundation is a non-profit with videos on insomnia, sleep training in children, and other topics<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"https:\/\/sleepfoundation.org\/video-library\">https:\/\/sleepfoundation.org\/video-library<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Video: An artist who periodically took LSD and drew self-portraits:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.openculture.com\/2013\/10\/artist-draws-nine-portraits-on-lsd-during-1950s-research-experiment.html\">http:\/\/www.openculture.com\/2013\/10\/artist-draws-nine-portraits-on-lsd-during-1950s-research-experiment.html<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Video: An interesting video on attention:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.dansimons.com\/videos.html\">http:\/\/www.dansimons.com\/videos.html<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Clip on out-of-body experiences induced using virtual reality.<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Clip on the rubber hand illusion, from the BBC science series \\&#8221;Horizon.\\&#8221;<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Clip showing a patient with blindsight, from the documentary \\&#8221;Phantoms in the Brain.\\&#8221;<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Demonstration of motion-induced blindness &#8211; Look steadily at the blue moving pattern. One or more of the yellow spots may disappear:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Howie Mandel from America&#8217;s Got Talent being hypnotized into shaking hands with people:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Imaging the Brain, Reading the Mind &#8211; A talk by Marsel Mesulam.<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/video.at.northwestern.edu\/lores\/SO_marsel.m4v\">http:\/\/video.at.northwestern.edu\/lores\/SO_marsel.m4v<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Lucas Handwerker \u2013 a stage hypnotist discusses the therapeutic aspects of hypnosis:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: Ted Talk &#8211; Simon Lewis: Don\\&#8217;t take consciousness for granted<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/simon_lewis_don_t_take_consciousness_for_granted.html\">http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/simon_lewis_don_t_take_consciousness_for_granted.html<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Video: TED Talk on Dream Research:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Video: The mind-body problem &#8211; An interview with Ned Block:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Want a quick demonstration of priming? (Want a quick demonstration of how powerful these effects can be? Check out:<\/dt>\n<dd>\n<div class=\"video\"><\/div>\n<\/dd>\n<dt>Web: A good overview of priming:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Priming_(psychology)\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Priming_(psychology)<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Web: Definitions of Consciousness:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.consciousentities.com\/definitions.htm\">http:\/\/www.consciousentities.com\/definitions.htm<\/a><\/dd>\n<dt>Web: Learn more about motion-induced blindness on Michael Bach\\&#8217;s website:<\/dt>\n<dd><a href=\"http:\/\/www.michaelbach.de\/ot\/mot-mib\/index.html\">http:\/\/www.michaelbach.de\/ot\/mot-mib\/index.html<\/a><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"discussion-questions\">Discussion Questions<\/h2>\n<ol>\n<li>If someone were in a coma after an accident, and you wanted to better understand how \u201cconscious\u201d or aware s\/he were, how might you go about it?<\/li>\n<li>What are some of the factors in daily life that interfere with people\u2019s ability to get adequate sleep? What interferes with your sleep?<\/li>\n<li>How frequently do you remember your dreams? Do you have recurring images or themes in your dreams? Why do you think that is?<\/li>\n<li>Consider times when you fantasize or let your mind wander? Describe these times: are you more likely to be alone or with others? Are there certain activities you engage in that seem particularly prone to daydreaming?<\/li>\n<li>A number of traditional societies use consciousness altering substances in ceremonies. Why do you think they do this?<\/li>\n<li>Do you think attitudes toward drug use are changing over time? If so, how? Why do you think these changes occur?<\/li>\n<li>Students in high school and college are increasingly using stimulants such as Adderol as study aids and \u201cperformance enhancers.\u201d What is your opinion of this trend?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"vocabulary\">Vocabulary<\/h2>\n<dl class=\"noba-chapter-vocabulary\">\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-blood-alcohol-content-bac\">Blood Alcohol Content (BAC)<\/dt>\n<dd>Blood Alcohol Content (BAC): a measure of the percentage of alcohol found in a person\u2019s blood. This measure is typically the standard used to determine the extent to which a person is intoxicated, as in the case of being too impaired to drive a vehicle.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-circadian-rhythm\">Circadian Rhythm<\/dt>\n<dd>Circadian Rhythm: The physiological sleep-wake cycle. It is influenced by exposure to sunlight as well as daily schedule and activity. Biologically, it includes changes in body temperature, blood pressure and blood sugar.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-consciousness\">Consciousness<\/dt>\n<dd>Consciousness: the awareness or deliberate perception of a stimulus<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-cues\">Cues<\/dt>\n<dd>Cues: a stimulus that has a particular significance to the perceiver (e.g., a sight or a sound that has special relevance to the person who saw or heard it)<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-depressants\">Depressants<\/dt>\n<dd>Depressants: a class of drugs that slow down the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-dissociation\">Dissociation<\/dt>\n<dd>Dissociation: the heightened focus on one stimulus or thought such that many other things around you are ignored; a disconnect between one\u2019s awareness of their environment and the one object the person is focusing on<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-euphoria\">Euphoria<\/dt>\n<dd>Euphoria: an intense feeling of pleasure, excitement or happiness.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-flexible-correction-model\">Flexible Correction Model<\/dt>\n<dd>Flexible Correction Model: the ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe these judgments have been biased (e.g., if someone realizes they only thought their day was great because it was sunny, they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for this \u201cbiasing\u201d influence of the weather)<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-hallucinogens\">Hallucinogens<\/dt>\n<dd>Hallucinogens: substances that, when ingested, alter a person\u2019s perceptions, often by creating hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-hypnosis\">Hypnosis<\/dt>\n<dd>Hypnosis: the state of consciousness whereby a person is highly responsive to the suggestions of another; this state usually involves a dissociation with one\u2019s environment and an intense focus on a single stimulus, which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-hypnotherapy\">Hypnotherapy<\/dt>\n<dd>Hypnotherapy: The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change such as lower pain or quitting smoking.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-implicit-associations-test\">Implicit Associations Test<\/dt>\n<dd>Implicit Associations Test (IAT): A computer reaction time test that measures a person\u2019s automatic associations with concepts. For instance, the IAT could be used to measure how quickly a person makes positive or negative evaluations of members of various ethnic groups.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-jet-lag\">Jet Lag<\/dt>\n<dd>Jet Lag: The state of being fatigued and\/or having difficulty adjusting to a new time zone after traveling a long distance (across multiple time zones).<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-melatonin\">Melatonin<\/dt>\n<dd>Melatonin: A hormone associated with increased drowsiness and sleep.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-mindfulness\">Mindfulness<\/dt>\n<dd>Mindfulness: a state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one\u2019s head, as well as a more controlled evaluation of those thoughts (e.g., do you reject or support the thoughts you\u2019re having?)<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-priming\">Priming<\/dt>\n<dd>Priming: the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-stimulants\">Stimulants<\/dt>\n<dd>Stimulants: a class of drugs that speed up the body\u2019s physiological and mental processes.<\/dd>\n<dt id=\"vocabulary-trance-states\">Trance States<\/dt>\n<dd>Trance: a state of consciousness characterized by the experience of \u201cout-of-body possession,\u201d or an acute dissociation between one\u2019s self and the current, physical environment surrounding them.<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"references\">References<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"noba-chapter-references\">\n<li id=\"reference-1\">Abbot, N. C., Stead, L. F., White, A. R., Barnes, J., &amp; Ernst, E. (1998). Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation. <em>Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,<\/em> 2.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-3\">Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., &amp; Burrows, L. (1996). Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71<\/em>(2), 230.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-4\">Buboltz, W., Brown, F. &amp; Soper, B. (2001). Sleep habits and patterns of college students: A preliminary study. <em>Journal of American College Health<\/em>, 50, 131-135.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-26\">Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39<\/em>(5), 752.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-6\">Ewin, D. M. (1978). <em>Clinical use of hypnosis for attenuation of burn depth. Hypnosis at its Bicentennial-Selected Papers from the Seventh International Congress of Hypnosis and Psychosomatic Medicine<\/em>. New York: Plenum Press.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-7\">Freud, S. (2001). <em>The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams<\/em> (First Part) (Vol. 4). Random House.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-8\">Gilbert, D. T., &amp; Hixon, J. G. (1991). The trouble of thinking: activation and application of stereotypic beliefs. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60<\/em>(4), 509.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-9\">Greenwald, A. G., &amp; Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 79, 1022-1038.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-10\">Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., &amp; Schwartz, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. <em>Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 74, 1464-1480.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-11\">Kihlstrom, J.F. (2003). Hypnosis and memory. In J.F. Byrne (Ed.), <em>Learning and memory<\/em>, 2nd ed. (pp. 240-242). Farmington Hills, Mi.: Macmillan Reference<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-12\">Kirsch, I., &amp; Lynn, S. J. (1995). Altered state of hypnosis: Changes in the theoretical landscape. <em>American Psychologist, 50<\/em>(10), 846.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-24\">Lynn S. J., and Kirsch I. (2006). <em>Essentials of clinical hypnosis<\/em>. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-13\">Lynn, S. J., Rhue, J. W., &amp; Weekes, J. R. (1990). Hypnotic involuntariness: A social-cognitive analysis. <em>Psychological Review<\/em>, 97, 169\u2013184.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-27\">Manoach, D. S., Thakkar, K. N., Stroynowski, E., Ely, A., McKinley, S. K., Wamsley, E., &#8230; &amp; Stickgold, R. (2010). Reduced overnight consolidation of procedural learning in chronic medicated schizophrenia is related to specific sleep stages. <em>Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44<\/em>(2), 112-120.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-14\">Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., &amp; Greenwald, A. G. (2002). Harvesting implicit group attitudes and beliefs from a demonstration website. <em>Group Dynamics, 6<\/em>(1), 101-115.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-16\">Patterson, D. R., Everett, J. J., Burns, G. L., &amp; Marvin, J. A. (1992). Hypnosis for the treatment of burn pain. <em>Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology<\/em>, 60, 713-17<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-17\">Pekala, R. J., Kumar, V. K., Maurer, R., Elliott-Carter, N., Moon, E., &amp; Mullen, K. (2010). Suggestibility, expectancy, trance state effects, and hypnotic depth: I. Implications for understanding hypnotism. <em>American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 52<\/em>(4), 275-290.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-18\">Petty, R. E., &amp; Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), <em>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology<\/em> (Vol. 19, pp. 123-205). New York: Academic Press.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-25\">Raichle, M. E. (2015). The brain&#8217;s default mode network. <em>Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38<\/em>, 433-447.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-19\">Stewart, B. &amp; Kleinhues, P. (2003). <em>World cancer report<\/em>. World Health Organization.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-20\">Syrjala, K. L., Cummings, C., &amp; Donaldson, G. W. (1992). Hypnosis or cognitive behavioral training for the reduction of pain and nausea during cancer treatment: A controlled clinical trial. <em>Pain<\/em>, 48, 137-46.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-21\">Wegener, D. T., &amp; Petty, R. E. (1997). The flexible correction model: The role of naive theories of bias in bias correction. <em>Advances in Experimental Social Psychology<\/em>, 29, 142-208.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-22\">Wickramasekera II, I. E., &amp; Szlyk, J. (2003). Could empathy be a predictor of hypnotic ability?<em>International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 51<\/em>(4), 390\u2013399.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-23\">Williams, L. E., &amp; Bargh, J. A. (2008). Experiencing physical warmth promotes interpersonal warmth. <em>Science, 322<\/em>(5901), 606-607.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-15\">\u00d6hman, A., &amp; Soares, J. J. (1994). \\&#8221;Unconscious anxiety\\&#8221;: phobic responses to masked stimuli. <em>Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103<\/em>(2), 231.<\/li>\n<li id=\"reference-28\">\u0160u\u0161m\u00e1kov\u00e1, K., &amp; Krakovsk\u00e1, A. (2008). Discrimination ability of individual measures used in sleep stages classification. <em>Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 44<\/em>(3), 261-277.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"authors\">Authors<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"media-list\">\n<li class=\"media\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"\" class=\"media-object noba-author pull-right\" height=\"150\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/author_photos\/000\/000\/154\/large.jpg\" width=\"150\" \/>\n<div class=\"media-body\">\n<div class=\"media-heading\">Robert Biswas-Diener<\/div>\n<p>Dr. Robert Biswas-Diener is a part-time instructor at Portland State University and is senior editor of Noba. He has more than 50 publications on happiness and other positive topics in peer-reviewed journals. He is author of The Upside of Your Dark Side.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"media\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" alt=\"\" class=\"media-object noba-author pull-right\" height=\"150\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/images\/shared\/author_photos\/000\/000\/155\/large.jpg\" width=\"150\" \/>\n<div class=\"media-body\">\n<div class=\"media-heading\">Jake Teeny<\/div>\n<p>Jake Teeny received his M.A. in social psychology from The Ohio State University, where he now pursuing a PhD. His research examines when and why people advocate their beliefs. In addition to his psychological work, he also writes short fiction, both of which can be found at www.jaketeeny.com<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"license\">Creative Commons License<\/h2>\n<p><small class=\"license\"><a class=\"marks\" href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\"><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Creative Commons\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/cc-7e377801d36ddb6d62c1c06dd07858f400efd7284459955e0de47bdb796c8658.png\" title=\"Creative Commons\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Attribution\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/by-9be0271defac0fba0df496e1e35b7cd2aeaed8630b22b935ce2ea51380c98cba.png\" title=\"Attribution\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Non-Commerical\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/nc-1f33b73ce264f326ba55092ac717ed56b21800b76bbd849859eacf7d9319745f.png\" title=\"Non-Commerical\" \/><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Share-Alike\" src=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/assets\/licensing\/sa-1725398b2ebf51d6d0165a63b36061120a047cceed2a5be57cf3f99ad65c3668.png\" title=\"Share-Alike\" \/><\/a><span class=\"title\">States of Consciousness<\/span> by <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/states-of-consciousness#authors\" rel=\"cc:attributionURL\">Robert Biswas-Diener and Jake Teeny<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/deed.en_US\" rel=\"license\">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License<\/a>. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available in our <a href=\"http:\/\/nobaproject.com\/license-agreement\" rel=\"cc:morePermissions\">Licensing Agreement<\/a>.<\/small><\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section>\n<h2 id=\"apa\">How to cite this Noba module using APA Style<\/h2>\n<p>Biswas-Diener, R. &amp; Teeny, J. (2018). States of consciousness. In R. Biswas-Diener &amp; E. Diener (Eds), <i>Noba textbook series: Psychology.<\/i> Champaign, IL: DEF publishers. DOI:<a href=\"http:\/\/www.nobaproject.com\/\">nobaproject.com<\/a><\/p>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":334,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[47],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-106","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-standard"],"part":86,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/106","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/334"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/106\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":107,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/106\/revisions\/107"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/86"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/106\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=106"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=106"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=106"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=106"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}