{"id":84,"date":"2018-04-16T22:56:27","date_gmt":"2018-04-17T02:56:27","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/?post_type=chapter&p=84"},"modified":"2018-04-26T19:49:13","modified_gmt":"2018-04-26T23:49:13","slug":"chapter-19","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/discoverpsychology2\/chapter\/chapter-19\/","title":{"raw":"The Psychology of Human Sexuality","rendered":"The Psychology of Human Sexuality"},"content":{"raw":"
By Don Lucas<\/a> and Jennifer Fox<\/a>\r\n

Northwest Vista College<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>

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Sexuality is one of the fundamental drives behind everyone\u2019s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. It defines the means of biological reproduction, describes psychological and sociological representations of self, and orients a person\u2019s attraction to others. Further, it shapes the brain and body to be pleasure-seeking. Yet, as important as sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed as a taboo topic for personal or scientific inquiry.<\/span><\/p>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>

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Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Explain how scientists study human sexuality.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Share a definition of human sexuality.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Distinguish between sex, gender, and sexual orientation.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Review common and alternative sexual behaviors.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Appraise how pleasure, sexual behaviors, and consent are intertwined.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>
    \r\n

    Introduction<\/h1>\r\nSex makes the world go around: It makes babies bond, children giggle, adolescents flirt, and adults have babies. It is addressed in the holy books of the world\u2019s great religions, and it infiltrates every part of society. It influences the way we dress, joke, and talk. In many ways, sex defines who we are.\u00a0It is so important, the eminent neuropsychologist Karl Pribram (1958<\/a>) described sex as one of four basic human drive states.\u00a0Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to Pribram, feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely associated with our psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for three of the four drives (Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016<\/a>). Can you guess which drive is the least understood and openly discussed?\r\n\r\nThis module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or taboo, using science as a lens, we examine fundamental aspects of human sexuality\u2014including gender, sexual orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilias, and sexual consent.\r\n

    The History of Scientific Investigations of Sex<\/h1>\r\n
    \"An
    An image on an ancient Greek drinking cup of two lovers kissing. ca. 480 BC [Image: Marie-Lan Nguyen,https:\/\/goo.gl\/uCPpNy,<\/a> Public Domain]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nThe history of human sexuality is as long as human history itself\u2014200,000+ years and counting (Ant\u00f3n & Swisher, 2004<\/a>).\u00a0For almost as long as we have been having sex, we have been creating art, writing, and talking about it.\u00a0Some of the earliest recovered artifacts from ancient cultures are thought to be fertility totems. The Hindu Kama Sutra<\/em> (400 BCE to 200 CE)\u2014an ancient text discussing love, desire, and pleasure\u2014includes a how-to manual for having sexual intercourse. Rules, advice, and stories about sex are also contained in the Muslim Qur\u2019an<\/em>, Jewish Torah,<\/em> and Christian Bible<\/em>.\r\n\r\nBy contrast, people have been scientifically investigating sex for only about 125 years. The first scientific investigations of sex employed the case study<\/a> method of research. Using this method, the English physician Henry Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) examined diverse topics within sexuality, including arousal and masturbation. From 1897 to 1923, his findings were published in a seven-volume set of books titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex. <\/em>Among his most noteworthy findings is that transgender people are distinct from homosexual people. Ellis\u2019s studies led him to be an advocate of equal rights for women and comprehensive human sexuality education in public schools.\r\n\r\nUsing case studies, the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is credited with being the first scientist to link sex to healthy development and to recognize humans as being sexual throughout their lifespans, including childhood (Freud, 1905<\/a>). Freud (1923<\/a>) argued that people progress through five stages of psychosexual development<\/a>: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. According to Freud, each of these stages could be passed through in a healthy or unhealthy manner. In unhealthy manners, people might develop psychological problems, such as frigidity, impotence, or anal-retentiveness.\r\n\r\nThe American biologist Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) is commonly referred to as the father of human sexuality research. Kinsey was a world-renowned expert on wasps but later changed his focus to the study of humans. This shift happened because he wanted to teach a course on marriage but found data on human sexual behavior lacking. He believed that sexual knowledge was the product of guesswork and had never really been studied systematically or in an unbiased way. He decided to collect information himself using the survey method<\/a>, and set a goal of interviewing 100 thousand people about their sexual histories. Although he fell short of his goal, he still managed to collect 18 thousand interviews! Many \u201cbehind closed doors\u201d behaviors investigated by contemporary scientists are based on Kinsey\u2019s seminal work.\r\n\r\nToday, a broad range of scientific research on sexuality continues. It\u2019s a topic that spans various disciplines, including anthropology, biology, neurology, psychology, and sociology.\r\n

    Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation: Three Different Parts of You<\/h1>\r\nApplying for a credit card or filling out a job application requires your name, address, and birth-date. Additionally, applications usually ask for your sex or gender. It\u2019s common for us to use the terms \u201csex\u201d and \u201cgender\u201d interchangeably. However, in modern usage, these terms are distinct from one another.\r\n
    \"A
    Cartoon depicting a traditional gender role of a woman as a housewife, working in the kitchen. [Image: JosephineRN28, https:\/\/goo.gl\/4x6cvg,<\/a> CC BY-SA 4.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/FxkLZS]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nSex<\/a> describes means of biological reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs, such as ovaries\u2014defining what it is to be a female\u2014or testes\u2014defining what it is to be a male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as easily defined or determined as you might expect (see the section on variations in sex, below). By contrast, the term gender<\/a>describes psychological (gender identity<\/a>) and sociological (gender role<\/a>) representations of biological sex. At an early age, we begin learning cultural norms for what is considered masculine and feminine. For example, children may associate long hair or dresses with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we often conform to these norms by behaving in gender-specific ways: as men, we build houses; as women, we bake cookies (Marshall, 1989<\/a>; Money et al., 1955<\/a>;Weinraub et al., 1984<\/a>).\r\n\r\nBecause cultures change over time, so too do ideas about gender. For example, European and American cultures today associate pink with femininity and blue with masculinity. However, less than a century ago, these same cultures were swaddling baby boys in pink, because of its masculine associations with \u201cblood and war,\u201d and dressing little girls in blue, because of its feminine associations with the Virgin Mary (Kimmel, 1996<\/a>).\r\n\r\nSex and gender are important aspects of a person\u2019s identity. However, they do not tell us about a person\u2019s sexual orientation (Rule & Ambady, 2008<\/a>). Sexual orientation<\/a> refers to a person\u2019s sexual attraction to others. Within the context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction<\/a> refers to a person\u2019s capacity to arouse the sexual interest of another, or, conversely, the sexual interest one person feels toward another.\r\n\r\nWhile some argue that sexual attraction is primarily driven by reproduction (e.g., Geary, 1998<\/a>), empirical studies point to pleasure as the primary force behind our sex drive. For example, in a survey of college students who were asked, \u201cWhy do people have sex?\u201d respondents gave more than 230 unique responses, most of which were related to pleasure rather than reproduction (Meston & Buss, 2007<\/a>). Here\u2019s a thought-experiment to further demonstrate how reproduction has relatively little to do with driving sexual attraction: Add the number of times you\u2019ve had and hope to have sex during your lifetime. With this number in mind, consider how many times the goal was (or will be) for reproduction versus how many it was (or will be) for pleasure. Which number is greater?\r\n\r\nAlthough a person\u2019s intimate behavior may have sexual fluidity<\/a> \u2014changing due to circumstances (Diamond, 2009<\/a>)\u2014sexual orientations are relatively stable over one\u2019s lifespan, and are genetically rooted (<\/a>Frankowski, 2004<\/a>). One method of measuring these genetic roots is the sexual orientation concordance rate<\/em> (SOCR). An SOCR is the probability that a pair of individuals has the same sexual orientation. SOCRs are calculated and compared between people who share the same genetics (monozygotic twins<\/a>, 99%); some of the same genetics (dizygotic twins<\/a>, 50%); siblings (50%); and non-related people, randomly selected from the population. Researchers find SOCRs are highest for monozygotic twins; and SOCRs for dizygotic twins, siblings, and randomly-selected pairs do not significantly differ from one another (Bailey et al. 2016<\/a>; Kendler et al., 2000<\/a>). Because sexual orientation is a hotly debated issue, an appreciation of the genetic aspects of attraction can be an important piece of this dialogue.\r\n

    On Being Normal: Variations in Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation<\/h1>\r\n\u201cOnly the human mind invents categories and tries to force facts into separated pigeon-holes. The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. The sooner we learn this concerning human sexual behavior, the sooner we shall reach a sound understanding of the realities of sex.<\/em>\u201d (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948<\/a>, pp. 638\u2013639)\r\n\r\nWe live in an era when sex, gender, and sexual orientation are controversial religious and political issues. Some nations have laws against homosexuality, while others have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At a time when there seems to be little agreement among religious and political groups, it makes sense to wonder, \u201cWhat is normal?\u201d and, \u201cWho decides?\u201d\r\n
    \"An
    Left: An intersexual two-spotted bumble bee (Bombus Bimaculatus) and, Right: Two mallard (Anas Platyrhynchos) ducks\u2014one of hundreds of species having homosexual or bisexual orientations. [Image left: USGS Bee Inventory, https:\/\/goo.gl\/fE3EUj,<\/a> Public Domain][Image right: Norbert Nagel,https:\/\/goo.gl\/vep4y3,<\/a> CC BY-SA 3.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/HXJGvT]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nThe international scientific and medical communities (e.g., World Health Organization, World Medical Association, World Psychiatric Association, Association for Psychological Science) view variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore, variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation occur naturally throughout the animal kingdom. More than 500 animal species have homosexual or bisexual orientations (Lehrer, 2006<\/a>). More than 65,000 animal species are <\/a>intersex<\/a>\u2014born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006<\/a>). In humans, intersex individuals make up about two percent\u2014more than 150 million people\u2014of the world\u2019s population (Blackless et al., 2000<\/a>). There are dozens of intersex conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Turner\u2019s Syndrome (Lee et al., 2006<\/a>). The term \u201csyndrome\u201d can be misleading; although intersex individuals may have physical limitations (e.g., about a third of Turner\u2019s individuals have heart defects; Matura et al., 2007<\/a>), they otherwise lead relatively normal intellectual, personal, and social lives. In any case, intersex individuals demonstrate the diverse variations of biological sex.\r\n\r\nJust as biological sex varies more widely than is commonly thought, so too does gender.Cisgender<\/a> individuals\u2019 gender identities correspond with their birth sexes, whereastransgender<\/a> individuals\u2019 gender identities do not correspond with their birth sexes. Because gender is so deeply ingrained culturally, rates of transgender individuals vary widely around the world (see Table 1).\r\n
    \"\"
    Table 1: Nations vary in the number of transgender people found in their populations (De Gascun et al., 2006<\/a>; Dulko & Imielinskia, 2004<\/a>; Landen et al., 1996<\/a>;Okabe et al., 2008<\/a>, Conron et al., 2012<\/a>; Winter, 2009<\/a>).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nAlthough incidence rates of transgender individuals differ significantly between cultures,transgender females (TGFs)<\/a>\u2014whose birth sex was male\u2014are by far the most frequent type of transgender individuals in any culture. Of the 18 countries studied by Meier and Labuski (2013<\/a>), 16 of them had higher rates of TGFs than transgender males (TGMs)<\/a>\u2014whose birth sex was female\u2014 and the 18 country TGF to TGM ratio was 3 to 1. TGFs have diverse levels ofandrogyny<\/a>\u2014having both feminine and masculine characteristics. For example, five percent of the Samoan population are TGFs referred to as fa'afafine<\/em>, who range in androgyny from mostly masculine to mostly feminine (Tan, 2016<\/a>); in Pakistan, India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, TGFs are referred to as hijras,<\/em> recognized by their governments as a third gender, and range in androgyny from only having a few masculine characteristics to being entirely feminine (Pasquesoone, 2014<\/a>); and as many as six percent of biological males living in Oaxaca, Mexico are TGFs referred to as muxes<\/em>, who range in androgyny from mostly masculine to mostly feminine (Stephen, 2002<\/a>).\r\n
    \"A
    Figure 2: Hijra Dancer in Nepal. [Image: Adam Jones,https:\/\/goo.gl\/TCxrVY,<\/a> CC BY-SA 2.0,https:\/\/goo.gl\/eEDNLy]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nSexual orientation is as diverse as gender identity. Instead of thinking of sexual orientation as being two categories\u2014homosexual and heterosexual\u2014Kinsey argued that it\u2019s a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948<\/a>). He measured orientation on a continuum, using a 7-point Likert scale called the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale, in which 0 is exclusively heterosexual<\/a>, 3 is bisexual<\/a>, and 6 is exclusively homosexual<\/a>. Later researchers using this method have found 18% to 39% of Europeans and Americans identifying as somewhere between heterosexual and homosexual (Lucas et al., 2017<\/a>; YouGov.com, 2015<\/a>). These percentages drop dramatically (0.5% to 1.9%) when researchers force individuals to respond using only two categories (Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016<\/a>; Gates, 2011<\/a>).\r\n

    What Are You Doing? A Brief Guide to Sexual Behavior<\/h1>\r\nJust as we may wonder what characterizes particular gender or sexual orientations as \u201cnormal,\u201d we might have similar questions about sexual behaviors. What is considered sexually normal depends on culture. Some cultures are sexually-restrictive\u2014such as one extreme example off the coast of Ireland, studied in the mid-20th century, known as the island of Inis Beag<\/em>. The inhabitants of Inis Beag<\/em> detested nudity and viewed sex as a necessary evil for the sole purpose of reproduction. They wore clothes when they bathed and even while having sex. Further, sex education was nonexistent, as was breast feeding (Messenger, 1989<\/a>). By contrast, Mangaians<\/em>, of the South Pacific island of A\u2019ua\u2019u, are an example of a highly sexually-permissive culture. YoungMangaian<\/em> boys are encouraged to masturbate. By age 13, they\u2019re instructed by older males on how to sexually perform and maximize orgasms for themselves and their partners. When the boys are a bit older, this formal instruction is replaced with hands-on coaching by older females. Young girls are also expected to explore their sexuality and develop a breadth of sexual knowledge before marriage (Marshall & Suggs, 1971<\/a>). These cultures make clear that what are considered sexually normal behaviors depends on time and place.\r\n\r\nSexual behaviors are linked to, but distinct from, fantasies. Leitenberg and Henning (1995<\/a>) define sexual fantasies as \u201cany mental imagery that is sexually arousing.\u201d One of the more common fantasies is the replacement fantasy<\/a>\u2014fantasizing about someone other than one\u2019s current partner (Hicks & Leitenberg, 2001<\/a>). In addition, more than 50% of people have forced-sex fantasies (Critelli & Bivona, 2008<\/a>). However, this does not mean most of us want to be cheating on our partners or be involved in sexual assault. Sexual fantasies are not<\/em> equal to sexual behaviors.\r\n
    \"A
    Figure 3: A United States patent drawing of an early 20th century anti-masturbation chastity belt. [Image: unknown, https:\/\/goo.gl\/D15Lnw,<\/a> Public Domain]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nSexual fantasies are often a context for the sexual behavior of masturbation<\/a>\u2014tactile (physical) stimulation of the body for sexual pleasure. Historically, masturbation has earned a bad reputation; it\u2019s been described as \u201cself-abuse,\u201d and falsely associated with causing adverse side effects, such as hairy palms, acne, blindness, insanity, and even death (Kellogg, 1888<\/a>). However, empirical evidence links masturbation to increased levels of sexual and marital satisfaction, and physical and psychological health (Hurlburt & Whitaker, 1991<\/a>; Levin, 2007<\/a>). There is even evidence that masturbation significantly decreases the risk of developing prostate cancer among males over the age of 50 (Dimitropoulou et al., 2009<\/a>). Masturbation is common among males and females in the U.S. Robbins et al. (2011<\/a>) found that 74% of males and 48% of females reported masturbating. However, frequency of masturbation is affected by culture. An Australian study found that only 58% of males and 42% of females reported masturbating (Smith, Rosenthal, & Reichler, 1996<\/a>). Further, rates of reported masturbation by males and females in India are even lower, at 46% and 13%, respectively (Ramadugu et al., 2011<\/a>).\r\n\r\nCoital sex<\/a> is the term for vaginal-penile intercourse, which occurs for about 3 to 13 minutes on average\u2014though its duration and frequency decrease with age (Corty & Guardiani, 2008<\/a>; Smith et al., 2012<\/a>). Traditionally, people are known as \u201cvirgins\u201d before they engage in coital sex, and have \u201clost\u201d their virginity afterwards. Durex (2005<\/a>) found the average age of first coital experiences across 41 different countries to be 17 years, with a low of 16 (Iceland), and a high of 20 (India). There is tremendous variation regarding frequency of coital sex. For example, the average number of times per year a person in Greece (138) or France (120) engages in coital sex is between 1.6 and 3 times greater than in India (75) or Japan (45; Durex, 2005<\/a>).\r\n\r\nOral sex<\/a> includes cunnilingus<\/a>\u2014oral stimulation of the female\u2019s external sex organs, andfellatio<\/a>\u2014oral stimulation of the male\u2019s external sex organs. The prevalence of oral sex widely differs between cultures\u2014with Western cultures, such as the U.S., Canada, and Austria, reporting higher rates (greater than 75%); and Eastern and African cultures, such as Japan and Nigeria, reporting lower rates (less than 10%; Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016<\/a>; Malacad & Hess, 2010<\/a>; Wylie, 2009<\/a>). Not only are there differences between cultures regarding how many people engage in oral sex, there are differences in its very definition. For example, most college students in the U.S. do not believe cunnilingus or fellatio are sexual behaviors\u2014and more than a third of college students believe oral sex is a form of abstinence (Barnett et al., 2017<\/a>; Horan, Phillips, & Hagan, 1998<\/a>; Sanders & Reinisch, 1999<\/a>).\r\n\r\nAnal sex<\/a> refers to penetration of the anus by an object. Anal sex is not exclusively a \u201chomosexual behavior.\u201d The anus has extensive sensory-nerve innervation and is often experienced as an erogenous zone, no matter where a person is on the Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale (Cordeau et al., 2014<\/a>). When heterosexual people are asked about their sexual behaviors, more than a third (about 40%) of both males and females report having had anal sex at some time during their life (Chandra, Mosher, & Copen, 2011<\/a>; Copen, Chandra, & Febo-Vazquez, 2016<\/a>). Comparatively, when homosexual men are asked about their most recent sexual behaviors, more than a third (37%) report having had anal sex (Rosenberger et al., 2011<\/a>). Like heterosexual people, homosexual people engage in a variety of sexual behaviors, the most frequent being masturbation, romantic kissing, and oral sex (Rosenberger et al., 2011<\/a>). The prevalence of anal sex widely differs between cultures. For example, people in Greece and Italy report high rates of anal sex (greater than 50%), whereas people in China and India report low rates of anal sex (less than 15%; Durex, 2005<\/a>).\r\n\r\nIn contrast to \u201cmore common\u201d sexual behaviors, there is a vast array of alternative sexual behaviors. Some of these behaviors, such as voyeurism<\/em>, exhibitionism<\/em>, and pedophilia<\/em> are classified in the DSM<\/em> as paraphilic disorders<\/a>\u2014behaviors that victimize and cause harm to others or one\u2019s self (American Psychiatric Association, 2013<\/a>). Sadism<\/a>\u2014inflicting pain upon another person to experience pleasure for one\u2019s self\u2014and masochism<\/a>\u2014receiving pain from another person to experience pleasure for one\u2019s self\u2014are also classified in the DSM<\/em> as paraphilic disorders. However, if an individual consensually engages in these behaviors, the term \u201cdisorder\u201d is replaced with the term \u201cinterest.\u201d Janus and Janus (1993<\/a>) found that 14% of males and 11% of females have engaged in some form of sadism and\/or masochism.\r\n

    Sexual Consent<\/h1>\r\n
    \"\"
    [Image: King County Sexual Assault Resource Center,https:\/\/goo.gl\/W4Vvmn]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nClearly, people engage in a multitude of behaviors whose variety is limited only by our own imaginations. Further, our standards for what\u2019s normal differs substantially from culture to culture. However, there is one aspect of sexual behavior that is universally acceptable\u2014indeed, fundamental and necessary. At the heart of what qualifies as sexually \u201cnormal\u201d is the concept of consent. Sexual consent<\/a> refers to the voluntary, conscious, and empathic <\/em>participation in a sexual act, which can be withdrawn at any time (Jozkowski & Peterson, 2013<\/a>). Sexual consent is the baseline for what are considered normal<\/em>\u2014acceptable and healthy\u2014behaviors; whereas, nonconsensual sex\u2014i.e., forced, pressured or unconscious participation\u2014is unacceptable and unhealthy. When engaging in sexual behaviors with a partner, a clear and explicit understanding of your boundaries, as well as your partner\u2019s boundaries, is essential. We recommend safer-sex practices<\/a>, such as condoms, honesty, and communication, whenever you engage in a sexual act. Discussing likes, dislikes, and limits prior to<\/em> sexual exploration reduces the likelihood of miscommunication and misjudging nonverbal cues. In the heat of the moment, things are not always what they seem. For example, Kristen Jozkowski and her colleagues (2014<\/a>) found that females tend to use verbal strategies of consent, whereas males tend to rely on nonverbal indications of consent. Awareness of this basic mismatch between heterosexual couples\u2019 exchanges of consent may proactively reduce miscommunication and unwanted sexual advances.\r\n\r\nThe universal principles of pleasure, sexual behaviors, and consent are intertwined. Consent is the foundation on which sexual activity needs to be built. Understanding and practicingempathic<\/em> consent requires sexual literacy<\/a> and an ability to effectively communicate desires and limits, as well as to respect others\u2019 parameters.\r\n

    Conclusion<\/h1>\r\nConsidering the amount of attention people give to the topic of sex, it\u2019s surprising how little most actually know about it. Historically, people\u2019s beliefs about sexuality have emerged as having absolute moral, physical, and psychological boundaries. The truth is, sex is less concrete than most people assume. Gender and sexual orientation, for example, are not either\/or categories. Instead, they are continuums. Similarly, sexual fantasies and behaviors vary greatly by individual and culture. Ultimately, open discussions about sexual identity and sexual practices will help people better understand themselves, others, and the world around them.\r\n
    \r\n

    Acknowledgements<\/h2>\r\nThe authors are indebted to Robert Biswas-Diener, Trina Cowan, Kara Paige, and Liz Wright for editing drafts of this module.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>
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    Exercises<\/h3>\r\n

    Take a Quiz<\/h2>\r\n
    <\/form>Testing yourself regularly is one of the most effective ways to strengthen your learning. Frequent testing helps you identify what you know and don\u2019t know so you can allocate your study time wisely. It also helps you retain information in memory for longer periods of time.\r\n\r\nBelow you will find a link to a 20-item quiz covering the main concepts found in this module. We suggest you start by learning 10 items. When the first session is complete you can either learn the final 10 items in a new session, review items from the first session, or return later.\r\n\r\nTo begin the quiz, click the \"Start Learning\" button.<\/strong> You can return to this quiz anytime to refresh your knowledge.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>
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    Outside Resources<\/h3>\r\n
    \r\n \t
    Documentary: I am Elizabeth Smart<\/em>. In 2002, Elizabeth Smart became a household name when news of her kidnapping from her home\u2014at age 14\u2014made national news. She was the victim of sexual assault and was held hostage for nearly a year, until she escaped. Today, she is an outspoken advocate for issues related to sex education and human trafficking. She is also author of an autobiography. Note: some content may be behind a paywall.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.aetv.com\/shows\/elizabeth-smart-autobiography\/season-1\/episode-1<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Journal: The Journal of Sex Research<\/em><\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.sexscience.org\/journal_of_sex_research\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Journal: The Journal of Sexual Medicine<\/em><\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.jsm.jsexmed.org\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Non-fiction book: Missoula<\/em>. In 2015, journalist Jon Krakauer wrote a book discussing rape on college campuses by focusing on a single town: Missoula, Montana (USA).<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Missoula-Rape-Justice-System-College\/dp\/0804170568\/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Organization: SIECUS - the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States- was founded in 1964 to provide education and information about sexuality and sexual and reproductive health.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.siecus.org\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Organization: The Guttmacher Institute is a leading research and policy organization committed to advancing sexual and reproductive health and rights in the United States and globally.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.guttmacher.org\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Organization: The Intersex Society of North America<\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.isna.org\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Podcast : This American Life - Sissies<\/em>, This episode focuses on perceptions of masculinity and of being seen as a \u201csissy.\u201d The transcript can be found here.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.thisamericanlife.org\/radio-archives\/episode\/190\/transcript<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Podcast: This American Life - Testosterone<\/em>, Stories of people getting more testosterone and regretting it and some of people losing it and coming to appreciate their new circumstances.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.thisamericanlife.org\/radio-archives\/episode\/220\/testosterone\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Video: 5MIweekly\u2014YouTube channel with weekly videos that playfully and scientifically examine human sexuality.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UCQFQ0vPPNPS-LYhlbKOzpFw<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Video: Muxes, a documentary about Mexican children identified as male at birth, but who choose at a young age to be raised as female.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    \r\n
    <\/div><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Video: Sexplanations\u2014YouTube channel with shame-free educational videos on everything sex.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/user\/sexplanations<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Video: YouTube: AsapSCIENCE<\/dt>\r\n \t
    https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/user\/AsapSCIENCE<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Web: Kinsey Confidential\u2014Podcast with empirically-based answers about sexual questions.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/kinseyconfidential.org\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n \t
    Web: Sex & Psychology\u2014Blog about the science of sex, love, and relationships.<\/dt>\r\n \t
    http:\/\/www.lehmiller.com\/<\/a><\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n
    <\/dl>\r\n<\/section>
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    Discussion Questions<\/h3>\r\n
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    1. Of the four basic human drive states Karl Pribram describes as being linked to our survival, why do you think the sex drive is the least likely to be openly and objectively addressed?<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. How might you go about scientifically investigating attitudes and behaviors regarding masturbation across various cultures?<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Discuss the three different parts of you as described by this module.<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. How would you define \u201cnatural\u201d human sexual behavior with respect to sex, gender, and sexual orientation? How does nature (i.e., the animal kingdom) help us define what is considered natural?<\/li>\r\n \t
    5. Why do humans feel compelled to categorize themselves and others based on their sex, gender, and sexual orientation? What would the world be like if these categories were removed?<\/li>\r\n \t
    6. How has culture influenced your sexual attitudes and behaviors?<\/li>\r\n \t
    7. The concept of sexual consent is seemingly simple; however, as this module presents, it is oftentimes skewed or ignored. Identify at least three factors that contribute to the complexities of consent, and how these factors might best be addressed to reduce unwanted sexual advances.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>
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      Vocabulary<\/h3>\r\n
      \r\n \t
      Anal sex<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Penetration of the anus by an animate or inanimate object.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Androgyny<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Having both feminine and masculine characteristics.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Bisexual<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Attraction to two sexes.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Case study<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      An in-depth and objective examination of the details of a single person or entity.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Cisgender<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      When a person\u2019s birth sex corresponds with his\/her gender identity and gender role.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Coital sex<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Vaginal-penile intercourse.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Cunnilingus<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Oral stimulation of the female\u2019s external sex organs.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Dizygotic twins<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Twins conceived from two ova and two sperm.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Fellatio<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Oral stimulation of the male\u2019s external sex organs.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Five stages of psychosexual development<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Gender<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      The psychological and sociological representations of one\u2019s biological sex.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Gender identity<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Personal depictions of masculinity and femininity.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Gender roles<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Societal expectations of masculinity and femininity.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Heterosexual<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Opposite-sex attraction.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Homosexual<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Same-sex attraction.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Intersex<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex chromosomes.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Masochism<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Receiving pain from another person to experience pleasure for one\u2019s self.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Masturbation<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Tactile stimulation of the body for sexual pleasure.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Monozygotic twins<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Twins conceived from a single ovum and a single sperm, therefore genetically identical.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Oral sex<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Cunnilingus or fellatio.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Paraphilic disorders<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Sexual behaviors that cause harm to others or one\u2019s self.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Replacement fantasy<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Fantasizing about someone other than one\u2019s current partner.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sadism<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Inflicting pain upon another person to experience pleasure for one\u2019s self.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Safer-sex practices<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Doing anything that may decrease the probability of sexual assault, sexually transmitted infections, or unwanted pregnancy; this may include using condoms, honesty, and communication.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sex<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      An organism\u2019s means of biological reproduction.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sexual attraction<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      The capacity a person has to elicit or feel sexual interest.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sexual consent<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Permission that is voluntary, conscious, and able to be withdrawn at any time.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sexual fluidity<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      Personal sexual attributes changing due to psychosocial circumstances.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sexual literacy<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      The lifelong pursuit of accurate human sexuality knowledge, and recognition of its various multicultural, historical, and societal contexts; the ability to critically evaluate sources and discern empirical evidence from unreliable and inaccurate information; the acknowledgment of humans as sexual beings; and an appreciation of sexuality\u2019s contribution to enhancing one\u2019s well-being and pleasure in life.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Sexual orientation<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      A person\u2019s sexual attraction to other people.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Survey method<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      One method of research that uses a predetermined and methodical list of questions, systematically given to samples of individuals, to predict behaviors within the population.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Transgender<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      A person whose gender identity or gender role does not correspond with his\/her birth sex.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Transgender female (TGF)<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      A transgender person whose birth sex was male.<\/dd>\r\n \t
      Transgender male (TGM)<\/strong><\/dt>\r\n \t
      A transgender person whose birth sex was female.<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>\r\n \r\n\r\n<\/section>
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      References<\/h2>\r\n