{"id":109,"date":"2020-02-20T15:10:45","date_gmt":"2020-02-20T20:10:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=109"},"modified":"2020-05-11T13:18:22","modified_gmt":"2020-05-11T17:18:22","slug":"chapter-3","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/chapter\/chapter-3\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 4","rendered":"Chapter 4"},"content":{"raw":"<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><strong>Topic 4 \u2013 Earth from Top-Down<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\r\nAlthough the<em><strong> Critical Zone<\/strong><\/em> focuses on the atmosphere just above the Earth\u2019s surface down to the initial few metres of the Earth\u2019s crust, the systems at work supporting the Critical Zone extend much further out into space and down beneath our feet. The atmosphere and internal structure of the Earth are similar in that both are composed of several distinct layers of material. As far as Earth Systems, we usually define these layers based on their <em>composition<\/em> and<em> function<\/em>. The atmosphere is comprised of a few main gases:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Nitrogen (N2 --&gt; ~78%)<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Oxygen (O2 --&gt; ~21%)<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Argon (Ar --&gt; ~0.93%)<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">Carbon Dioxide (CO2 --&gt; ~0.04%)<\/li>\r\n \t<li style=\"text-align: left\">other trace gases (including methane (CH4), water vapour (H2O), ozone (O3) and more).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Nitrogen and Oxygen are mixed in a nearly constant ratio throughout the lower atmosphere (also known as the Homosphere, ~0-80 km), and are known as \u2018permanent\u2019 gases whereas the other gases vary in their amounts in the lower atmosphere across the Earth, and are known as \u2018variable\u2019 gases. Above the Homosphere, in the Heterosphere (&gt;80 km), gases separate out based on density. There are three key relationships to remember with respect to atmospheric composition and gases:<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">As one moves up through the atmosphere:<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">1. Air <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"340\"]density[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> decreases\r\n2. Atmospheric <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"341\"]pressure[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> decreases\r\n3. Atmospheric <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"342\"]heat[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> decreases<\/p>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The rate at which change occurs through the atmosphere for density, pressure, temperature and heat are referred to as <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"344\"]lapse rates[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. For example, the average lapse rate for temperature in the lowest part of the atmosphere is 6.4\u00b0C\/km.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_111\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"486\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-111\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve.png\" alt=\"A graph of the atmosphere showing how density, pressure, the speed of sound and temperature fluctuates with increasing altitude\" width=\"486\" height=\"600\" \/> Density, pressure, temperature and speed of sound fluctuations as altitude increases in the atmosphere[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<span style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\">Within the Homosphere, There are three distinct sub-layers of the atmosphere that vary based on <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\">[pb_glossary id=\"343\"]temperature[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong><span style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\"> and function:<\/span>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>0-17 km \u2013 Troposphere \u2013 average temperature decreases from 15\u00b0C at the base to -57\u00b0C at the top. Where most clouds form and atmosphere\/hydrosphere\/lithosphere interaction takes place.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>17-48 km \u2013 Stratosphere- average temperature increases from -57\u00b0C at the base to 0\u00b0C at the top. High concentrations of ozone in this layer absorb significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>48-80 km \u2013 Mesosphere \u2013 average temperature decreases from 0\u00b0C at the base to -90\u00b0C at the top. Coldest part of the atmosphere in measured temperature.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nIn the Heterosphere, a final sub-layer of the atmosphere exists:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>&gt;80 km \u2013 Thermosphere \u2013 average temperature increase from -90 at the base to 1200\u00b0C at the top. The thermosphere has a high temperature due to direct interaction with intense solar radiation at its upper surface, but the air particles are extremely low density here, so the felt <strong>heat<\/strong> is very low.*<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_112\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"720\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-112\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers.jpg\" alt=\"An image showing the different layers of the atmosphere at their respective heights.\" width=\"720\" height=\"440\" \/> Layers of the atmosphere[\/caption]\r\n\r\n*Recall, temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy, whereas heat is a measure of thermal energy transfer from one system to another. Where particle density is low, the transfer of heat energy is inefficient.\r\n\r\nThe Earth\u2019s interior:\r\n\r\nBelow the atmosphere lies Earth\u2019s <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"345\"]lithosphere[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, or rocky surface. Our current understanding of Earth\u2019s internal structure is based on several relatively recent discoveries and the behaviour of <strong>seismic waves<\/strong> as they travel through the Earth to map out layers of <strong>density<\/strong> in the Earth\u2019s interior. The Earth\u2019s interior can be defined as having four distinct zones:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Surface to 70 km depth \u2013 <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Lithospheric crust<\/span> \u2013 <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"346\"]Rigid[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, rocky outer surface of the Earth. Coolest zone of Earth\u2019s interior. Where <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"347\"]tectonic plates[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> exist and interact.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>70 km to 2900 km depth \u2013 Mantle \u2013 Rigid to <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"348\"]plastic[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> material, which provides the driving mechanisms for <strong>plate tectonics<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>2900 km to 5150 km depth \u2013 Outer core \u2013 <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"349\"]Molten[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> mineral material, mostly iron. Very high temperatures keep the material liquid.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>5150 km to 6370 km depth \u2013 Inner core \u2013 Solid mineral material, mostly iron. Though temperatures are higher than the melting point of iron, it remains a solid because of the exceedingly high pressure imposed by the surrounding layers.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe mantle is the most complex of these zones. Where it contacts the lithospheric crust at the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"350\"]Mohorovicic discontinuity[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (also known as the \u2018moho\u2019), it is rocky and rigid, but immediately below this zone it transitions into a plastic layer called the <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"351\"]Asthenosphere[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, the hottest part of the mantle. Although not fully liquid, the plastic Asthenosphere allows for mobility, through convection currents driven by heat from radioactive decay of elements within the Earth\u2019s core. This mobility allows for the movement of overriding tectonic plates. Below the Asthenosphere, there is a transition to the upper mantle and then below that into the lower mantle, two layers distinguished by <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"352\"]mineral[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> composition and slight differences in mobility (the lower mantle is under higher pressures and deforms slowly over long time periods).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_113\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"572\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-113\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers.png\" alt=\"A 3-D cutout of the Earth's interior indicating the different layers and their depths from the surface\" width=\"572\" height=\"449\" \/> Schematic of the Earth denoting oceanic and continental crust and the subsurface layers.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThere are two main types of crust that make up the lithosphere.\r\n\r\n<strong>Oceanic crust:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Geography: underlies most of the world\u2019s ocean water.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mineral composition: mainly silica, magnesium and iron, combined in a rock called Basalt.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Average density: 3.0 g\/cm3.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Continental crust:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Geography: comprises most of the world\u2019s land area.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mineral composition: primarily silica and aluminum.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Average density: 2.7 g\/cm3.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nAs a result of their different density, when oceanic and continental crust meet at boundaries in the Earth\u2019s lithosphere, oceanic crust normally sinks below the continental crust.","rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: center\"><span style=\"color: #ff0000\"><strong>Topic 4 \u2013 Earth from Top-Down<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n<p>Although the<em><strong> Critical Zone<\/strong><\/em> focuses on the atmosphere just above the Earth\u2019s surface down to the initial few metres of the Earth\u2019s crust, the systems at work supporting the Critical Zone extend much further out into space and down beneath our feet. The atmosphere and internal structure of the Earth are similar in that both are composed of several distinct layers of material. As far as Earth Systems, we usually define these layers based on their <em>composition<\/em> and<em> function<\/em>. The atmosphere is comprised of a few main gases:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Nitrogen (N2 &#8211;&gt; ~78%)<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Oxygen (O2 &#8211;&gt; ~21%)<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Argon (Ar &#8211;&gt; ~0.93%)<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">Carbon Dioxide (CO2 &#8211;&gt; ~0.04%)<\/li>\n<li style=\"text-align: left\">other trace gases (including methane (CH4), water vapour (H2O), ozone (O3) and more).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">Nitrogen and Oxygen are mixed in a nearly constant ratio throughout the lower atmosphere (also known as the Homosphere, ~0-80 km), and are known as \u2018permanent\u2019 gases whereas the other gases vary in their amounts in the lower atmosphere across the Earth, and are known as \u2018variable\u2019 gases. Above the Homosphere, in the Heterosphere (&gt;80 km), gases separate out based on density. There are three key relationships to remember with respect to atmospheric composition and gases:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">As one moves up through the atmosphere:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">1. Air <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_340\">density<\/a><\/strong> decreases<br \/>\n2. Atmospheric <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_341\">pressure<\/a><\/strong> decreases<br \/>\n3. Atmospheric <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_342\">heat<\/a><\/strong> decreases<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: left\">The rate at which change occurs through the atmosphere for density, pressure, temperature and heat are referred to as <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_344\">lapse rates<\/a><\/strong>. For example, the average lapse rate for temperature in the lowest part of the atmosphere is 6.4\u00b0C\/km.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_111\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-111\" style=\"width: 486px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-111\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve.png\" alt=\"A graph of the atmosphere showing how density, pressure, the speed of sound and temperature fluctuates with increasing altitude\" width=\"486\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve.png 486w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve-243x300.png 243w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve-65x80.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve-225x278.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Temperature-Curve-350x432.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 486px) 100vw, 486px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-111\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Density, pressure, temperature and speed of sound fluctuations as altitude increases in the atmosphere<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\">Within the Homosphere, There are three distinct sub-layers of the atmosphere that vary based on <\/span><strong style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_343\">temperature<\/a><\/strong><span style=\"text-align: center;font-size: 16px\"> and function:<\/span><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>0-17 km \u2013 Troposphere \u2013 average temperature decreases from 15\u00b0C at the base to -57\u00b0C at the top. Where most clouds form and atmosphere\/hydrosphere\/lithosphere interaction takes place.<\/li>\n<li>17-48 km \u2013 Stratosphere- average temperature increases from -57\u00b0C at the base to 0\u00b0C at the top. High concentrations of ozone in this layer absorb significant ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.<\/li>\n<li>48-80 km \u2013 Mesosphere \u2013 average temperature decreases from 0\u00b0C at the base to -90\u00b0C at the top. Coldest part of the atmosphere in measured temperature.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>In the Heterosphere, a final sub-layer of the atmosphere exists:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>&gt;80 km \u2013 Thermosphere \u2013 average temperature increase from -90 at the base to 1200\u00b0C at the top. The thermosphere has a high temperature due to direct interaction with intense solar radiation at its upper surface, but the air particles are extremely low density here, so the felt <strong>heat<\/strong> is very low.*<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_112\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-112\" style=\"width: 720px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-112\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers.jpg\" alt=\"An image showing the different layers of the atmosphere at their respective heights.\" width=\"720\" height=\"440\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers.jpg 720w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers-300x183.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers-65x40.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers-225x138.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Atmosphere-Layers-350x214.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 720px) 100vw, 720px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-112\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Layers of the atmosphere<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>*Recall, temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy, whereas heat is a measure of thermal energy transfer from one system to another. Where particle density is low, the transfer of heat energy is inefficient.<\/p>\n<p>The Earth\u2019s interior:<\/p>\n<p>Below the atmosphere lies Earth\u2019s <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_345\">lithosphere<\/a><\/strong>, or rocky surface. Our current understanding of Earth\u2019s internal structure is based on several relatively recent discoveries and the behaviour of <strong>seismic waves<\/strong> as they travel through the Earth to map out layers of <strong>density<\/strong> in the Earth\u2019s interior. The Earth\u2019s interior can be defined as having four distinct zones:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Surface to 70 km depth \u2013 <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">Lithospheric crust<\/span> \u2013 <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_346\">Rigid<\/a><\/strong>, rocky outer surface of the Earth. Coolest zone of Earth\u2019s interior. Where <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_347\">tectonic plates<\/a><\/strong> exist and interact.<\/li>\n<li>70 km to 2900 km depth \u2013 Mantle \u2013 Rigid to <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_348\">plastic<\/a><\/strong> material, which provides the driving mechanisms for <strong>plate tectonics<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>2900 km to 5150 km depth \u2013 Outer core \u2013 <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_349\">Molten<\/a><\/strong> mineral material, mostly iron. Very high temperatures keep the material liquid.<\/li>\n<li>5150 km to 6370 km depth \u2013 Inner core \u2013 Solid mineral material, mostly iron. Though temperatures are higher than the melting point of iron, it remains a solid because of the exceedingly high pressure imposed by the surrounding layers.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The mantle is the most complex of these zones. Where it contacts the lithospheric crust at the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_350\">Mohorovicic discontinuity<\/a><\/strong> (also known as the \u2018moho\u2019), it is rocky and rigid, but immediately below this zone it transitions into a plastic layer called the <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_351\">Asthenosphere<\/a><\/strong>, the hottest part of the mantle. Although not fully liquid, the plastic Asthenosphere allows for mobility, through convection currents driven by heat from radioactive decay of elements within the Earth\u2019s core. This mobility allows for the movement of overriding tectonic plates. Below the Asthenosphere, there is a transition to the upper mantle and then below that into the lower mantle, two layers distinguished by <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_109_352\">mineral<\/a><\/strong> composition and slight differences in mobility (the lower mantle is under higher pressures and deforms slowly over long time periods).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_113\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-113\" style=\"width: 572px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-113\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers.png\" alt=\"A 3-D cutout of the Earth's interior indicating the different layers and their depths from the surface\" width=\"572\" height=\"449\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers.png 572w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers-300x235.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers-65x51.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers-225x177.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/886\/2020\/02\/Earth-interior-layers-350x275.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 572px) 100vw, 572px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-113\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Schematic of the Earth denoting oceanic and continental crust and the subsurface layers.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>There are two main types of crust that make up the lithosphere.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Oceanic crust:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Geography: underlies most of the world\u2019s ocean water.<\/li>\n<li>Mineral composition: mainly silica, magnesium and iron, combined in a rock called Basalt.<\/li>\n<li>Average density: 3.0 g\/cm3.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Continental crust:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Geography: comprises most of the world\u2019s land area.<\/li>\n<li>Mineral composition: primarily silica and aluminum.<\/li>\n<li>Average density: 2.7 g\/cm3.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>As a result of their different density, when oceanic and continental crust meet at boundaries in the Earth\u2019s lithosphere, oceanic crust normally sinks below the continental crust.<\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_109_340\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_340\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The density of air or atmospheric density, denoted p, is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere (Wiki)<br \/>\nDensity is defined as the ratio between mass and volume or mass per unit volume (Study.com)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_341\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_341\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>It is the force exerted on a surface by the air above it as gravity pulls it to Earth (NatGeo)<br \/>\nThe definition of air pressure is the force exerted onto a surface by the weight of the air (YourDictionary)<br \/>\nIs defined as the force acting on a surface from another mass per unit area (PhysGeography.net)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_342\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_342\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Heat is defined as energy in the process of being transferred from one object to another because of the temperature difference between them. In the atmosphere, heat is commonly transferred by conduction, convection, advection, and radiation (PhysGeography.net)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_344\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_344\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>the rates at which air temperature decreases with altitude (Itseducationglossary)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_343\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_343\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>is a measure of the intensity or degree of hotness in a body. Technically, it is determined by getting the average speed of a body's molecules (PhysGeography.net)<br \/>\nTemperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of the atmosphere on some chosen scale. It is commonly measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit (Wikibooks)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_345\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_345\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Is the solid inorganic portion of the Earth (composed of rocks, minerals, and elements) (PhysGeo.net)<br \/>\nthe crust and upper mantle. Either solid or highly viscous, this layer is not easily deformed or manipulated (itseducation)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_346\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_346\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>stiff and unflexible; not pliant or flexible; firmly set. (Vocabulary.com)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_347\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_347\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Theory suggesting that the Earth's surface is composed of a number of oceanic and continental plates. Driven by convection currents in the mantle, these plates have the ability to slowly move across the Earth's plastic asthenosphere. (PhysGeo.net)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_348\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_348\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when subjected to stresses of intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary deformation (Britannica)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_349\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_349\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>object that's reduced to liquid form by heating<br \/>\nrock that has been transformed  into liquid form by being heated <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_350\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_350\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The lower boundary of the crust. At this boundary seismic wave velocities show an increase in speed as they enter the upper mantle (PhysGeo.net)<br \/>\nis the boundary between the crust and the mantle (Geology.com)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_351\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_351\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Zone in the Earth's mantle that exhibits plastic properties. Located below the lithosphere (PhysGeo.net)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_109_352\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_109_352\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>naturally occurring inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition, and an ordered internal structure (Geology.com) **ordered \uf0e0 regular repeating structure<br \/>\nA naturally occurring inorganic solid with a crystalline structure and a specific chemical composition (PhysGeo.net)<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":852,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-109","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/852"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":353,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/revisions\/353"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/109\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=109"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=109"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/earthsystems\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=109"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}