{"id":5,"date":"2018-03-31T19:11:01","date_gmt":"2018-03-31T23:11:01","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/2018\/03\/31\/chapter-1\/"},"modified":"2020-01-15T15:13:57","modified_gmt":"2020-01-15T20:13:57","slug":"chapter-1","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/chapter\/chapter-1\/","title":{"raw":"What is Engineering? Definition, introduction and a brief history","rendered":"What is Engineering? Definition, introduction and a brief history"},"content":{"raw":"What is engineering?\u00a0 \u00a0Here is how it is defined in wikipedia.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering<\/a>\r\n\r\nEngineering<\/b>\u00a0<\/span>is the creative application of\u00a0<\/span>science<\/a>, mathematical methods, and\u00a0<\/span>empirical evidence<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>to the\u00a0<\/span>innovation<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>design<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>construction<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>maintenance<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>structures<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>machines<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>materials<\/a>, devices,\u00a0<\/span>systems<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>processes<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>organizations<\/a>. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized\u00a0<\/span>fields of engineering<\/a>, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of\u00a0<\/span>applied mathematics<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>applied science<\/a>, and types of application. See\u00a0<\/span>glossary of engineering<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe term\u00a0<\/span>engineering<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>is derived from the\u00a0<\/span>Latin<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>ingenium<\/i>, meaning \"cleverness\" and\u00a0<\/span>ingeniare<\/i>, meaning \"to contrive, devise\".[1]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n

Definition<\/span><\/h2>\r\nThe\u00a0<\/span>American Engineers' Council for Professional Development<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(ECPD, the predecessor of\u00a0<\/span>ABET<\/a>)[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>has defined \"engineering\" as:\r\n
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.[3]<\/a><\/sup>[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/blockquote>\r\n

History<\/span><\/h2>\r\n
Main article:\u00a0<\/span>History of engineering<\/a><\/div>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"<\/a>\r\n
\r\n
<\/a><\/div>\r\nRelief map of the\u00a0<\/span>Citadel of Lille<\/a>, designed in 1668 by\u00a0<\/span>Vauban<\/a>, the foremost military engineer of his age.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nEngineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley.\r\n\r\nThe term\u00a0<\/span>engineering<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>is derived from the word\u00a0<\/span>engineer<\/i>, which itself dates back to 1390 when an\u00a0<\/span>engine'er<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>(literally, one who operates an\u00a0<\/span>engine<\/i>) referred to \"a constructor of military engines.\"[5]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>In this context, now obsolete, an \"engine\" referred to a military machine,\u00a0<\/span>i.e.<\/i>, a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a\u00a0<\/span>catapult<\/a>). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps,\u00a0<\/span>e.g.<\/i>, the\u00a0<\/span>U.S. Army Corps of Engineers<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe word \"engine\" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the\u00a0<\/span>Latin<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>ingenium<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>(c. 1250), meaning \"innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.\"[6]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nLater, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term\u00a0<\/span>civil engineering<\/a>[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of\u00a0<\/span>military engineering<\/a>.\r\n

Ancient era<\/span><\/h3>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"<\/a>\r\n
\r\n
<\/a><\/div>\r\nThe Ancient Romans built\u00a0<\/span>aqueducts<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe\u00a0<\/span>pyramids<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Egypt<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Acropolis<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Greece<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Roman aqueducts<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Via Appia<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>Colosseum<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Teotihuac\u00e1n<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Great Wall of China<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Brihadeeswarar Temple<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>Thanjavur<\/a>, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the\u00a0<\/span>Hanging Gardens of Babylon<\/a>, and the\u00a0<\/span>Pharos of Alexandria<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the\u00a0<\/span>Seven Wonders of the Ancient World<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe earliest civil engineer known by name is\u00a0<\/span>Imhotep<\/a>.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>As one of the officials of the\u00a0<\/span>Pharaoh<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Djos\u00e8r<\/a>, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the\u00a0<\/span>Pyramid of Djoser<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(the\u00a0<\/span>Step Pyramid<\/a>) at\u00a0<\/span>Saqqara<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Egypt<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>around\u00a0<\/span>2630<\/a>\u20132611 BC<\/a>.[7]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Ancient Greece<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The\u00a0<\/span>Antikythera mechanism<\/a>, the first known\u00a0<\/span>mechanical computer<\/a>,[8]<\/a><\/sup>[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>and the mechanical\u00a0<\/span>inventions<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>Archimedes<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of\u00a0<\/span>differential gearing<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>or\u00a0<\/span>epicyclic gearing<\/a>, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the\u00a0<\/span>gear trains<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as\u00a0<\/span>robotics<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and\u00a0<\/span>automotive engineering<\/a>.[10]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nAncient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hungarian armies employed military machines and inventions such as\u00a0<\/span>artillery<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>the\u00a0<\/span>trireme<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>ballista<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>catapult<\/a>. In the Middle Ages, the\u00a0<\/span>trebuchet<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was developed.\r\n

Renaissance era<\/span><\/h3>\r\nThe first\u00a0<\/span>steam engine<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was built in 1698 by\u00a0<\/span>Thomas Savery<\/a>.[12]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>The development of this device gave rise to the\u00a0<\/span>Industrial Revolution<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of\u00a0<\/span>mass production<\/a>.\r\n\r\nWith the rise of engineering as a\u00a0<\/span>profession<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the\u00a0<\/span>mechanic arts<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>became incorporated into engineering.\r\n

Modern era<\/span><\/h3>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"<\/a>\r\n
\r\n
<\/a><\/div>\r\nThe\u00a0<\/span>International Space Station<\/a>represents a modern engineering challenge for many disciplines.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe inventions of\u00a0<\/span>Thomas Newcomen<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and\u00a0<\/span>James Watt<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>gave rise to modern\u00a0<\/span>mechanical engineering<\/a>. The development of specialized machines and\u00a0<\/span>machine tools<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace\u00a0<\/span>Britain<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and abroad.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"<\/a>\r\n
\r\n
<\/a><\/div>\r\nStructural engineers working on NASA's Mars-bound\u00a0<\/span>spacecraft<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Phoenix Mars Lander<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nJohn Smeaton<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the \"father\" of\u00a0<\/span>civil engineering<\/a>. He was an English\u00a0<\/span>civil engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>responsible for the design of\u00a0<\/span>bridges<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>canals<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>harbours<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>lighthouses<\/a>. He was also a capable\u00a0<\/span>mechanical engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and an eminent\u00a0<\/span>physicist<\/a>. Smeaton designed the third\u00a0<\/span>Eddystone Lighthouse<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(1755\u201359) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime<\/a>' (a form of\u00a0<\/span>mortar<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at\u00a0<\/span>Plymouth Hoe<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>where it is known as\u00a0<\/span>Smeaton's Tower<\/a>. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern\u00a0<\/span>cement<\/a>, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain \"hydraulicity\" in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of\u00a0<\/span>Portland cement<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of \"engineer\" for the first time with a count of 2,000.[13]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThere was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[15]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThe foundations of\u00a0<\/span>electrical engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the 1800s included the experiments of\u00a0<\/span>Alessandro Volta<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Michael Faraday<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Georg Ohm<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and others and the invention of the\u00a0<\/span>electric telegraph<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1816 and the\u00a0<\/span>electric motor<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1872. The theoretical work of\u00a0<\/span>James Maxwell<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(see:\u00a0<\/span>Maxwell's equations<\/a>) and\u00a0<\/span>Heinrich Hertz<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of\u00a0<\/span>electronics<\/a>. The later inventions of the\u00a0<\/span>vacuum tube<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>transistor<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Chemical engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>developed in the late nineteenth century.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n
\r\n
\r\n\r\n\"\"<\/a>\r\n
\r\n
<\/a><\/div>\r\nThe\u00a0<\/span>Falkirk Wheel<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in Scotland\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAeronautical engineering deals with\u00a0<\/span>aircraft design process<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>design while\u00a0<\/span>aerospace engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including\u00a0<\/span>spacecraft<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of\u00a0<\/span>Sir George Cayley<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[16]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nThe first\u00a0<\/span>PhD<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in engineering (technically,\u00a0<\/span>applied science and engineering<\/i>) awarded in the United States went to\u00a0<\/span>Josiah Willard Gibbs<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>at\u00a0<\/span>Yale University<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]<\/a><\/sup>\r\n\r\nOnly a decade after the successful flights by the\u00a0<\/span>Wright brothers<\/a>, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in\u00a0<\/span>World War I<\/a>. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining\u00a0<\/span>theoretical physics<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>with experiments.\r\n\r\nIn 1990, with the rise of\u00a0<\/span>computer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>technology, the first\u00a0<\/span>search engine<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was built by\u00a0<\/span>computer engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>Alan Emtage<\/a>.","rendered":"

What is engineering?\u00a0 \u00a0Here is how it is defined in wikipedia.<\/p>\n

https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Engineering<\/a><\/p>\n

Engineering<\/b>\u00a0<\/span>is the creative application of\u00a0<\/span>science<\/a>, mathematical methods, and\u00a0<\/span>empirical evidence<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>to the\u00a0<\/span>innovation<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>design<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>construction<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>maintenance<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>structures<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>machines<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>materials<\/a>, devices,\u00a0<\/span>systems<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>processes<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>organizations<\/a>. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized\u00a0<\/span>fields of engineering<\/a>, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of\u00a0<\/span>applied mathematics<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>applied science<\/a>, and types of application. See\u00a0<\/span>glossary of engineering<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The term\u00a0<\/span>engineering<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>is derived from the\u00a0<\/span>Latin<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>ingenium<\/i>, meaning “cleverness” and\u00a0<\/span>ingeniare<\/i>, meaning “to contrive, devise”.[1]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Definition<\/span><\/h2>\n

The\u00a0<\/span>American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(ECPD, the predecessor of\u00a0<\/span>ABET<\/a>)[2]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>has defined “engineering” as:<\/p>\n

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.[3]<\/a><\/sup>[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/p><\/blockquote>\n

History<\/span><\/h2>\n
Main article:\u00a0<\/span>History of engineering<\/a><\/div>\n
\n
\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
<\/a><\/div>\n

Relief map of the\u00a0<\/span>Citadel of Lille<\/a>, designed in 1668 by\u00a0<\/span>Vauban<\/a>, the foremost military engineer of his age.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley.<\/p>\n

The term\u00a0<\/span>engineering<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>is derived from the word\u00a0<\/span>engineer<\/i>, which itself dates back to 1390 when an\u00a0<\/span>engine’er<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>(literally, one who operates an\u00a0<\/span>engine<\/i>) referred to “a constructor of military engines.”[5]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine,\u00a0<\/span>i.e.<\/i>, a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a\u00a0<\/span>catapult<\/a>). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps,\u00a0<\/span>e.g.<\/i>, the\u00a0<\/span>U.S. Army Corps of Engineers<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the\u00a0<\/span>Latin<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>ingenium<\/i>\u00a0<\/span>(c. 1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.”[6]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term\u00a0<\/span>civil engineering<\/a>[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of\u00a0<\/span>military engineering<\/a>.<\/p>\n

Ancient era<\/span><\/h3>\n
\n
\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
<\/a><\/div>\n

The Ancient Romans built\u00a0<\/span>aqueducts<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>to bring a steady supply of clean and fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The\u00a0<\/span>pyramids<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Egypt<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Acropolis<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Greece<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Roman aqueducts<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Via Appia<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>Colosseum<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Teotihuac\u00e1n<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Great Wall of China<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Brihadeeswarar Temple<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>Thanjavur<\/a>, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the\u00a0<\/span>Hanging Gardens of Babylon<\/a>, and the\u00a0<\/span>Pharos of Alexandria<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the\u00a0<\/span>Seven Wonders of the Ancient World<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The earliest civil engineer known by name is\u00a0<\/span>Imhotep<\/a>.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>As one of the officials of the\u00a0<\/span>Pharaoh<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Djos\u00e8r<\/a>, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the\u00a0<\/span>Pyramid of Djoser<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(the\u00a0<\/span>Step Pyramid<\/a>) at\u00a0<\/span>Saqqara<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in\u00a0<\/span>Egypt<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>around\u00a0<\/span>2630<\/a>\u20132611 BC<\/a>.[7]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Ancient Greece<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The\u00a0<\/span>Antikythera mechanism<\/a>, the first known\u00a0<\/span>mechanical computer<\/a>,[8]<\/a><\/sup>[9]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>and the mechanical\u00a0<\/span>inventions<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of\u00a0<\/span>Archimedes<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes’ inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of\u00a0<\/span>differential gearing<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>or\u00a0<\/span>epicyclic gearing<\/a>, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the\u00a0<\/span>gear trains<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as\u00a0<\/span>robotics<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and\u00a0<\/span>automotive engineering<\/a>.[10]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hungarian armies employed military machines and inventions such as\u00a0<\/span>artillery<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,[11]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>the\u00a0<\/span>trireme<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>ballista<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>catapult<\/a>. In the Middle Ages, the\u00a0<\/span>trebuchet<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was developed.<\/p>\n

Renaissance era<\/span><\/h3>\n

The first\u00a0<\/span>steam engine<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was built in 1698 by\u00a0<\/span>Thomas Savery<\/a>.[12]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>The development of this device gave rise to the\u00a0<\/span>Industrial Revolution<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of\u00a0<\/span>mass production<\/a>.<\/p>\n

With the rise of engineering as a\u00a0<\/span>profession<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the\u00a0<\/span>mechanic arts<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>became incorporated into engineering.<\/p>\n

Modern era<\/span><\/h3>\n
\n
\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
<\/a><\/div>\n

The\u00a0<\/span>International Space Station<\/a>represents a modern engineering challenge for many disciplines.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

The inventions of\u00a0<\/span>Thomas Newcomen<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and\u00a0<\/span>James Watt<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>gave rise to modern\u00a0<\/span>mechanical engineering<\/a>. The development of specialized machines and\u00a0<\/span>machine tools<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace\u00a0<\/span>Britain<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and abroad.[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

\n
\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
<\/a><\/div>\n

Structural engineers working on NASA’s Mars-bound\u00a0<\/span>spacecraft<\/a>, the\u00a0<\/span>Phoenix Mars Lander<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

John Smeaton<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the “father” of\u00a0<\/span>civil engineering<\/a>. He was an English\u00a0<\/span>civil engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>responsible for the design of\u00a0<\/span>bridges<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>canals<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>harbours<\/a>, and\u00a0<\/span>lighthouses<\/a>. He was also a capable\u00a0<\/span>mechanical engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and an eminent\u00a0<\/span>physicist<\/a>. Smeaton designed the third\u00a0<\/span>Eddystone Lighthouse<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(1755\u201359) where he pioneered the use of ‘hydraulic lime<\/a>‘ (a form of\u00a0<\/span>mortar<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at\u00a0<\/span>Plymouth Hoe<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>where it is known as\u00a0<\/span>Smeaton’s Tower<\/a>. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern\u00a0<\/span>cement<\/a>, because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain “hydraulicity” in lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of\u00a0<\/span>Portland cement<\/a>.<\/p>\n

The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of “engineer” for the first time with a count of 2,000.[13]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[15]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The foundations of\u00a0<\/span>electrical engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the 1800s included the experiments of\u00a0<\/span>Alessandro Volta<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Michael Faraday<\/a>,\u00a0<\/span>Georg Ohm<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and others and the invention of the\u00a0<\/span>electric telegraph<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1816 and the\u00a0<\/span>electric motor<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1872. The theoretical work of\u00a0<\/span>James Maxwell<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>(see:\u00a0<\/span>Maxwell’s equations<\/a>) and\u00a0<\/span>Heinrich Hertz<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of\u00a0<\/span>electronics<\/a>. The later inventions of the\u00a0<\/span>vacuum tube<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>and the\u00a0<\/span>transistor<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Chemical engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>developed in the late nineteenth century.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[4]<\/a><\/sup>\u00a0<\/span>The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[4]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

\n
\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

\n
<\/a><\/div>\n

The\u00a0<\/span>Falkirk Wheel<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in Scotland<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

Aeronautical engineering deals with\u00a0<\/span>aircraft design process<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>design while\u00a0<\/span>aerospace engineering<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including\u00a0<\/span>spacecraft<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of\u00a0<\/span>Sir George Cayley<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[16]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

The first\u00a0<\/span>PhD<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in engineering (technically,\u00a0<\/span>applied science and engineering<\/i>) awarded in the United States went to\u00a0<\/span>Josiah Willard Gibbs<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>at\u00a0<\/span>Yale University<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]<\/a><\/sup><\/p>\n

Only a decade after the successful flights by the\u00a0<\/span>Wright brothers<\/a>, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in\u00a0<\/span>World War I<\/a>. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining\u00a0<\/span>theoretical physics<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>with experiments.<\/p>\n

In 1990, with the rise of\u00a0<\/span>computer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>technology, the first\u00a0<\/span>search engine<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>was built by\u00a0<\/span>computer engineer<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>Alan Emtage<\/a>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":9,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[47],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-5","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-standard"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/9"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":416,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5\/revisions\/416"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=5"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=5"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/engineeringinsociety\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=5"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}