{"id":245,"date":"2020-07-15T11:49:36","date_gmt":"2020-07-15T15:49:36","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/chapter\/lab-15-bcs-geology-and-geologic-structures\/"},"modified":"2024-05-30T15:29:48","modified_gmt":"2024-05-30T19:29:48","slug":"bcs-geology-and-geologic-structures","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/chapter\/bcs-geology-and-geologic-structures\/","title":{"raw":"Lab 17: BC\u2019s Geology and Geologic Structures","rendered":"Lab 17: BC\u2019s Geology and Geologic Structures"},"content":{"raw":"Geomorphology is the scientific study of the characteristics and origins of landforms. Landforms arise through the interplay between <strong>endogenic<\/strong> processes fueled by Earth's internal energy and <strong>exogenic<\/strong> processes ultimately fueled by the Sun. Endogenic processes tend to be responsible for the rock types and geological structures found in any particular area. Where geological structure dominates the surface landforms, they are called <strong>structural landforms<\/strong> and are the main focus of this lab.\r\n\r\nThis lab will provide experience in identifying and analyzing rock samples, identifying tectonic plate boundaries, interpreting geologic maps and cross-sections, and interpreting British Columbia\u2019s (BCs) geologic history and rocks from the various geologic belts that span the province.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nAfter completion of this lab, you will be able to\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Distinguish between the three major classes of rocks.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understand the basic terminology relating to geological structures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify different types of tectonic plate boundaries.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Interpret geological maps and cross sections.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Analyze rocks from across the province of British Columbia, and predict which geologic belt the rock samples were obtained from.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>Pre-Readings<\/h1>\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Classification of Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic<\/h2>\r\nRocks can be classified into three main categories: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Igneous Rocks<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Igneous rocks<\/strong> form from the cooling and crystallization of <strong>magma<\/strong>. Igneous rocks are divided depending on the environment in which the magma cooled:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Intrusive igneous <\/strong>or <strong>plutonic<\/strong> (named after Pluto, the god of the underworld in Roman mythology) rocks form from magma that cooled deep underground. Because the magma in this case cools very slowly, intrusive igneous rocks usually contain relatively large mineral crystals. Common examples include granite, granodiorite, diorite and gabbro.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Extrusive<\/strong> <strong>igneous <\/strong>or <strong>volcanic<\/strong> rocks form from magma in volcanic eruptions. Magma is\u00a0called <strong>lava<\/strong> once it reaches Earth\u2019s surface. Because in this case the magma cools quickly on Earth\u2019s surface, the mineral crystals in the rock are either very small or non-existent. In situations where the lava cools very quickly, a volcanic glass called obsidian is produced. Common examples of extrusive igneous rock include basalt, dacite, andesite and rhyolite.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe precise type of intrusive or extrusive rock that is produced from cooling magma is determined by the magma\u2019s chemical composition, especially the abundance of <strong>silica<\/strong> (SiO<sub>2<\/sub>). The silica content plays an important role in the physical characteristics of an igneous rock, including its resistance to weathering and erosion. It also plays an important role in the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions, because magma with a higher silica content is <strong>stickier<\/strong> and therefore more likely to produce an explosive eruption.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Sedimentary Rocks<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Sedimentary rocks <\/strong>are formed by the <strong>lithification<\/strong> (compaction, cementation and hardening) of weathering and erosion products which have accumulated in a fluvial, marine or lacustrine environment over long periods of time. These products can be of two basic types, which provides us with a sub-classification of sedimentary rocks:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Clastic<\/strong> sedimentary rocks are made from ground-down rock as well as other surviving minerals. Common examples include sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone or mudstone, and shale. Clastic sedimentary rocks exhibit a huge variation in their resistance to weathering and erosion depending on the degree of lithification of the clastic sediments they are composed of.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Carbonate<\/strong> or <strong>chemical<\/strong> sedimentary rocks are made from the precipitation of minerals, primarily calcium carbonate, dissolved in water. Common examples are limestone (CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>) and dolomite (CaMg(CO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub>).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Metamorphic Rocks<\/h3>\r\n<strong>Metamorphic rocks<\/strong> are formed by the alteration or partial melting of a sedimentary, igneous or pre-existing metamorphic rock by heat and pressure beneath Earth\u2019s surface. Common examples include gneiss, marble, slate, schist and quartzite.\r\n\r\nThe specific type of metamorphic rock in question is largely a function of the original (or <strong>parent<\/strong> rock). For example, shale (a sedimentary rock) typically metamorphoses into slate, and granite (an intrusive igneous rock) typically metamorphoses into gneiss.\r\n\r\nThe type of metamorphic rock also depends on the degree of cooking that has occurred during the process of metamorphism. <strong>Foliated rocks <\/strong>result when the constituent minerals in the parent rock have been realigned into planar surfaces during metamorphism. <strong>Non-foliated rocks <\/strong>do not develop these planar fabrics.\r\n\r\nSome metamorphic rocks can be more compact compared to their parent rock. Quartzite, for example, is much more resistant to weathering and erosion than its parent rock sandstone. In other cases, metamorphism creates planes of weakness within the rock, such as the foliation in gneiss.\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Tectonic Plate Boundaries<\/h2>\r\nThe theory of plate tectonics provides the model that underlies our understanding of modern geology and the interactions between oceans and continents. Plate tectonics explains why the highest and lowest points on Earth occur where they do. Plate tectonics also explains why and where we can observe highly deformed rocks at or near the surface. The deformation is seen in the form of geologic features such as <strong>folds<\/strong> and <strong>faults<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nThe type of plate boundary determines the types of deformation that may occur. <strong>Transform<\/strong>, or <strong>strike-slip <\/strong>plate boundaries occur when two plates move along each other in a predominately horizontal motion (scenario <em>a<\/em> in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1<\/a>). <strong>Divergent<\/strong> plate boundaries occur when two plates move away from each other (scenario <em>b<\/em>). <strong>Convergent<\/strong> plate boundaries occur when two plates move toward each other, or collide together (scenarios <em>c<\/em> and <em>d<\/em>).<a id=\"figure17.1\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_238\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"569\"]<img class=\"wp-image-238 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"569\" height=\"415\" \/> <strong>Figure 17.1.<\/strong> Top: Schematic illustration of the main types of plate interactions: a) transform boundary, b) divergent boundary, c) and d) convergent boundaries. Bottom: Map of the main global tectonic plate boundaries. <em>Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/serc.carleton.edu\/details\/images\/2200.html\">D. McDonnell<\/a>, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Geologic Structures<\/h2>\r\n<strong>Geological structure<\/strong> can be defined as the arrangement and attitude of rocks in Earth's <strong>lithosphere<\/strong>. Structure results from <strong>tectonism<\/strong>, the deformation of Earth's crust by endogenic forces. Tectonism includes both <strong>diastrophism<\/strong>, large-scale deformations of the crust producing mountain ranges, ocean basins, etc., and <strong>volcanism<\/strong>, the creation of crustal material on a more localized scale through volcanic activity. Both sets of processes are a result of the mechanism of plate tectonics.\r\n\r\nGeological structures can be relatively simple if tectonic forces have not deformed the crust to any great degree. Examples include the horizontal beds of young sedimentary rocks which underlie much of the Prairie provinces of Canada. On the other hand, where deformation has been substantial, the resulting geological structure can be extremely complicated. Examples include the intensely deformed sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of many of BC\u2019s mountain ranges or the Himalaya of South Asia.\r\n\r\nTectonism can produce a wide variety of geological structures including <strong>folds<\/strong> (flexures or bends in the crustal rocks due to compressional forces), and <strong>faults<\/strong> (brittle ruptures or fractures in the crustal rocks). Note that folding rarely involves rupturing of the rock, but faulting does.\r\n\r\nFolding and faulting impose two types of attitudes on the rock. <strong>Dip<\/strong> is the angle (measured in degrees) which the rock <strong>strata<\/strong> (layers, fault or any planar feature) make with a horizontal plane, measured in a direction perpendicular to the <strong>strike<\/strong> of the rock strata (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.2\">Figure 17.2<\/a>). Strike is the intersection between the plane in question and the horizontal plane. It is commonly expressed using the cardinal directions of the compass or as a full-circle azimuth.<a id=\"figure17.2\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1830\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1800\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1830 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1800\" height=\"699\" \/> <strong>Figure 17.2.<\/strong> Strike and dip of geological strata. Note that apparent dip is any dip angle not measured perpendicular to the strike; it underestimates the true dip. <em>Source: F. de Scally, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><a id=\"geologic history\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Geologic History of British Columbia<\/h2>\r\nThe geologic history of BC dates back to a time when there was actually no BC west of today\u2019s Rocky Mountains. The western edge of the ancestral North American continent, composed of the ancient plutonic rocks of the North American <strong>craton<\/strong> (continental core), was situated roughly where Calgary and Dawson Creek are located today (Figure 17.3). West of this ancient shoreline, the submarine <strong>continental shelf<\/strong> extended roughly to where the town of Golden is situated today (just east of Revelstoke in Figure 17.3).<a id=\"figure17.3\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_240\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1189\"]<img class=\"wp-image-240 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888.jpg\" alt=\"image description linked to in caption\" width=\"1189\" height=\"1087\" \/> <strong>Figure 17.3.<\/strong> Geological belts of British Columbia, which correspond roughly to the major physiographic regions of the province. <em>Source: F. de Scally, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em>\u00a0<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#id17.3\">[Image description]<\/a>[\/caption]The following sections describe important intervals in BC's geologic history. Some of this information is derived from <em>British Columbia: A Natural History <\/em>(Cannings and Cannings, 2004). Note that <strong>Ga = billion years<\/strong>,\u00a0<strong>Ma = million years<\/strong>, a <strong>terrane<\/strong> is a fragment of crust formed on, or broken off of, a tectonic plate and added to crust on a different plate, and a <strong>superterrane<\/strong> is a group of related terranes.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">1.7 Ga to 180 Ma<\/h3>\r\nOver an immense time period of about 1.5 billion years, sediment eroded from the ancient North American craton is deposited in a <strong>miogeocline<\/strong> (a part of the submarine continental shelf along a tectonically quiescent continental margin where sediment deposition occurs) just offshore of the western margin of ancestral North America.\r\n\r\nAlthough this continental margin formed a part of different <strong>supercontinents<\/strong> at various times over this period, including <strong>Rodinia<\/strong> and <strong>Pangaea<\/strong>, it was tectonically quiescent. This allowed uninterrupted sediment deposition in the miogeocline. Both clastic sediments (muds and sands) and carbonate sediments (from coralline organisms) were deposited, which has important implications for the formation of the Foreland Belt much later.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">750-300 Ma<\/h3>\r\nThe supercontinent Rodinia broke up and another supercontinent Pangaea began to assemble. The wedge of sediment in the miogeocline offshore of ancestral North America continued to build and was eventually lithified into sedimentary rock. This included the burial of marine organisms around 530 Ma which today form the world-famous Burgess Shale fossil beds in Yoho National Park of BC.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">245 Ma<\/h3>\r\nThe supercontinent Pangaea began to break up. Earth\u2019s tectonic plates began their slow movement into their modern configuration.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">200 Ma<\/h3>\r\nUp to 2,000 km away in the ancestral Pacific Ocean, at an old plate boundary, the <strong>Intermontane<\/strong> <strong>superterrane<\/strong> began to assemble when the Stikinia and Quesnellia <strong>terranes<\/strong> (<strong>volcanic island arcs<\/strong>) were amalgamated with the sea floor sediments of the Cache Creek and Slide Mountain terranes. This produced a <strong>m\u00e9lange<\/strong> (mix) of sea-floor sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">180-150 Ma<\/h3>\r\nA change in the direction of plate movement caused the ancestral North American continent to collide with the Intermontane superterrane. The tremendous heat and pressure of this slow-motion collision caused rocks of the miogeocline and the Intermontane superterrane to be metamorphosed at a <strong>weld<\/strong> to form the Omineca Belt. The metamorphic rocks of the Omineca Belt today form the Columbia, Cassiar, Monashee and Selkirk Mountains as well as the Quesnel and Shuswap Highlands of BC.\r\n\r\nFollowing the collision, the Intermontane Belt to the west consisted mostly of the m\u00e9lange rocks of this ancient superterrane, with occasional deeply buried and very old plutonic rocks protruding through these much younger rocks. Today, these protrusions form high peaks such as Big White Mountain near Kelowna. The shoreline of ancestral North America was located roughly at the western boundary of the Intermontane Belt by 150 Ma (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>).\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">120 Ma<\/h3>\r\nBy 120 Ma, the sedimentary rocks of the former miogeocline had been pushed eastward and upward by the tremendous force of the Intermontane Superterrane\u2019s collision to form the eastern Rocky Mountains of the Foreland Belt. These forces not only produced significant folding of the rocks, but also <strong>thrust faults<\/strong> when layers of strong, resistant carbonate rock were broken and shoved eastward in thick <strong>thrust sheets<\/strong>. The force of the collision also created a deep topographic depression east of the newly formed Rocky Mountains, which shortly began to fill with eroded sediment to eventually form weak clastic rocks such as shale and mudstone.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">100-60 Ma<\/h3>\r\nAnother superterrane, the Insular superterrane, assembled earlier far offshore when the volcanic island arcs of the Wrangellia and Alexander terranes collided with the western edge of the Intermontane Belt. The m\u00e9lange of sea floor sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks in the resulting Insular Belt today makes up the mountains of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii.\r\n\r\nFollowing this collision, the west coast of BC looked much like it does today. The heat of this collision also created the intrusive igneous (plutonic) rocks of the Coast Belt, which today make up the Coast and Cassiar Mountains and Okanagan Highlands of BC.\r\n\r\nThe force of this collision also continued to build the eastern Rocky Mountains in the Foreland Belt, with thrust faulting continuing to push rocks as much as 250 km eastward. For example, the rocks of Mount Rundle in Banff located near the eastern edge of the Foreland Belt were originally formed near where Revelstoke is situated today (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>). During this thrust faulting, the weak shales and mudstones deposited after 120 Ma east of the ancestral Rocky Mountains were shoved in between layers of strong limestone to form the classic weak-strong-weak-strong layering in the geological structure of the Foreland Belt. Further east, the horizontal layers of weak post-120 Ma sedimentary rock in the Interior Plains belt (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>) were unaffected by the force of the superterrane collisions, forming the modern flat Prairie landscape.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">85 Ma<\/h3>\r\nThe motion of oceanic tectonic plates to the west of BC changed, and instead of moving northeastward toward the North American plate, the motion became more northerly. This stretched the continental crust and produced extensive <strong>strike-slip faulting <\/strong>in BC. The best example of this was the 750 km of lateral displacement along the northern section of the Rocky Mountain Trench (at the boundary between the Omineca and Foreland Belts in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>). This stretching also created the parallel-to-the-coast orientation of BC\u2019s geologic belts (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>) and the province\u2019s many mountain ranges.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">60-50 Ma<\/h3>\r\nA standstill in plate movement allowed the geologic belts thrust eastward by the superterranes\u2019 collisions to slump back toward the west. This created roughly northwest-southeast oriented valleys in BC, including the southern portion of the Rocky Mountain Trench and the Okanagan Valley. This <strong>relaxation<\/strong> of the crust also allowed the deeply buried Monashee gneiss - at 2 Ga, the oldest rocks in BC - to be exposed in the Okanagan Valley.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">55-36 Ma<\/h3>\r\nFurther relaxation of the crust allowed extensive volcanic lava flows to cover much of the BC Interior, especially in the Intermontane Belt. As a result, many of the original rocks of the Intermontane Belt were buried by basaltic lava flows. In general, volcanic eruptions in the Intermontane Belt produced basaltic rocks of lower silica content, while more explosive eruptions of lava with higher silica content in the Coast Belt produced rhyolitic rocks and breccias.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">40-5 Ma<\/h3>\r\nA <strong>non-orogenic period<\/strong> brought mountain building to a halt, and allowed erosion by streams and rivers to begin to shape the modern drainage pattern of BC. An <strong>erosion surface<\/strong> of gentle hills formed west of the Foreland Belt, and by 10 Ma the mountains of the Coast Belt were so low that there was no longer a climatic <strong>rain shadow<\/strong>\u00a0on the leeward (east) side.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">21-5 Ma<\/h3>\r\nMultiple episodes of volcanic activity occurred in the Intermontane Belt and in the Coast Belt.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">5-1 Ma<\/h3>\r\nA final <strong>orogenic period<\/strong> occurred when the <strong>subduction zone<\/strong> under small tectonic plates west of the North American coastline steepened, resulting in <strong>reheating<\/strong> of the crust in the Coast Belt. This reheating uplifted the 40-5 Ma erosion surface by about 2000 m, resulting in the modern mountains of the Coast Belt. The reheating also produced the volcanoes of today\u2019s Cascade Volcanic Arc, stretching from the southern Coast Mountains of BC to northern California. There was also uplifting and warping of much of the plateau surface in the Intermontane Belt. Today, the resulting undulating plateau surface is clearly visible from Pennask Summit along Highway 97C (the <strong>Okanagan Connector<\/strong>) west of Kelowna.\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">2.6-0.01 Ma<\/h3>\r\nGlaciations during the Pleistocene epoch eroded the modern landscape pattern of BC, including the rugged mountain ranges of the Foreland, Omineca, Coast and Insular Belts.\r\n<h1>Lab Exercises<\/h1>\r\nIn this lab you will\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Classify rocks into the three major classes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify and locate different plate motions at tectonic boundaries.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Interpret structural features from a geologic cross section.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Match rock types to geologic history.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYou will need an internet connection to download maps. EX2 and EX3 may be easier if you are able to print the maps. It is assumed that you have successfully completed <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/chapter\/lab-12-biogeography-coastal-forest-virtual-field-trip\/\">Lab 12<\/a>. It is also assumed that you can convert between metres and feet. The exercises should take you 1\u00bd to 3 hours to complete.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX1: Classification of Rocks<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>Classify each of samples 1A-1F in the slide deck below (Figure 17.4a\u2013f) as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, and provide a one-sentence explanation of the reasoning for each of your choices. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=19\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.4<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"h5p\">[h5p id=\"19\"]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter wp-image-2273 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"690\" \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Figure 17.4.\u00a0<\/strong>Igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic slide deck.\r\n<ol start=\"2\">\r\n \t<li>Classify igneous rock samples 2A-2D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.5a\u2013d) as <strong>intrusive<\/strong> (also known as plutonic) or <strong>extrusive<\/strong>\u00a0(also known as volcanic), and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=20\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.5<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"h5p\">[h5p id=\"20\"]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"size-full wp-image-2274 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Figure 17.5. <\/strong>Igneous slide deck.\r\n<ol start=\"3\">\r\n \t<li>Classify sedimentary rock samples 3A-3D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.6a\u2013d) as <strong>clastic<\/strong> or <strong>carbonate or chemical<\/strong>, and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=21\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.6<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"h5p\">[h5p id=\"21\"]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2275\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Figure 17.6.\u00a0<\/strong>Sedimentary slide deck.\r\n<ol start=\"4\">\r\n \t<li>Classify metamorphic rock samples 4A-4D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.7a\u2013d) as <strong>foliated<\/strong> or <strong>non-foliated<\/strong>, and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=22\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.7<\/a>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"h5p\">[h5p id=\"22\"]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\">\r\n\r\n<img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2276\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" \/>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Figure 17.7.\u00a0<\/strong>Metamorphic slide deck.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX2: Plate Tectonic Boundaries<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol start=\"5\">\r\n \t<li><a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1 (bottom)<\/a> is a map showing the major plate boundaries found on Earth. The schematic cross-sections a) to d) show four models of relative plate motions. Download and use the map<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Detailed_Tectonic_Plate_Boundaries.pdf\"> Detailed Tectonic Plate Boundaries [PDF]<\/a> to determine which of these cross-sections best represents the plate motion at each of the numbered locations (1-9) found on <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1<\/a>. Explain your answers. the numbered locations are at the following tectonic plate boundaries:\r\n<ol start=\"1\">\r\n \t<li>African and Antarctic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>African and Arabian<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Indian-Australian and Eurasian<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pacific and Eurasian<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Indian Australia and Pacific<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pacific and North American<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pacific and Antarctic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nazca and South American<\/li>\r\n \t<li>North American and African<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At which of these numbered boundaries would you expect to find old rocks that have been folded and deformed? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At which of these numbered boundaries would you expect to find young undeformed rocks? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX3: Geological Structure Basics<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.8\">Figure 17.8<\/a> shows a geological cross-section of the area near Banff, Alberta, Canada, that was created by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). Download a PDF version of Figure 17.8 <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/gscmap-a_1294A_e_1972_xs02_EastHalf.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Banff East-Half Cross Section [PDF]<\/a> and the corresponding \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/gscmap-a_1294a_e_1972_mn01.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">1:50,000 Banff Geology map [PDF]<\/a> (legend is on the map) so that you can view the area in more detail.<a id=\"figure17.8\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_253\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1600\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1032\/2020\/07\/Figure_15.8.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-241 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabs2020\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"1600\" height=\"527\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 17.8.<\/strong> Geological Survey of Canada: Banff East-Half Cross Section. <em>Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca\/starweb\/geoscan\/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan\/fulle.web&amp;search1=R=108961\">Geological Survey of Canada<\/a>, Open Government License.<\/em>[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ol start=\"8\">\r\n \t<li>Match the structural features identified on the GSC Banff East-Half Cross Section and listed in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#table17.1\">Table 17.1<\/a> with the corresponding location name found on the 1:50,000 Banff Geology map.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 100%\" border=\"0\"><caption><a id=\"table17.1\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Table 17.1. List of structural features to match with location names on Banff Geology map.<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Structural Feature<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Location Name on Banff Geology Map<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>Gently dipping strata<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Eroded asymmetrical anticline<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Steeply dipping strata<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Asymmetrical syncline overlain by recent glacial and fluvial deposits<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">\r\n<h6>Brewster Creek<\/h6>\r\n<h6>Fatigue Creek<\/h6>\r\n<h6>Fatigue Mountain<\/h6>\r\n<h6>Sulfur Mountain Thrust<\/h6>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<ol start=\"9\">\r\n \t<li>Which location name has the oldest rocks at the surface? Explain your answer.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The <strong>Qd<\/strong>\u00a0beds on the geological map are fundamentally different from all the other formations shown on the geologic cross section. In what way are they different?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX4: Analysis of Rock Samples from British Columbia<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol start=\"11\">\r\n \t<li>Examine the eight rock samples in the slide deck below (Figure 17.9a\u2013h), then name the geologic belt on <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a> from which each sample was obtained.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<div class=\"h5p\">[h5p id=\"23\"]<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\"><img class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2278\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"955\" \/><\/div>\r\n<strong>Figure 17.9.<\/strong> British Columbia rocks slide deck.\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Provide a two-sentence rationale for your choice of geologic belt for each sample. In answering this question, use information on rock type supplied in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#geologic history\">BC's Geologic History<\/a>, along with information from the internet regarding the rock names. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=23\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.9<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Reflection Questions<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>BC is quite unique in that is has mountain ranges dominated by sedimentary rocks (e.g., the Rocky Mountains), mountain ranges dominated by metamorphic rocks (e.g., the Monashee Mountains) and mountain ranges dominated by igneous rocks (e.g., the Coast Mountains). Assume you have never visited any of these mountain ranges and write a short 2-3 sentence explanation about which one you think would be most geologically interesting to you, and why.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If you live in BC, which geologic belt do you live in, and what kinds of rocks are dominant in your area?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Did students from similar areas post similar looking rocks? Why or why not?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>EX2 examined large global tectonic plate boundaries, but when you can look in more detail there is a lot more going on. Look closely at the western North American plate boundaries in the <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Detailed_Tectonic_Plate_Boundaries.pdf\">Detailed Tectonic Plate Boundaries [PDF]<\/a> from EX2, and examine the boundaries that exist between the Pacific Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, and the North American Plate. Answer the following questions, and explain your thinking.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>What will eventually happen to the Juan de Fuca plate?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Why are there volcanoes in the Cascade and Coast mountains?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If you could see 20 million years into the future, where would you have to look for land west of the San Andreas Fault?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>References<\/h1>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cannings, R., &amp; Cannings, S. (2004). <em>British Columbia: A natural history<\/em>. Greystone Books.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h3>Image Descriptions<\/h3>\r\n<strong><a id=\"id17.3\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Figure 17.3. Geological belts of British Columbia<\/strong>\r\n\r\nmap of the geological belts that can be found in the province of BC, and the bordering edges of the neighboring province (Alberta), territory (Yukon), and US States (Washington and Alaska). There are six geologic belts that each run as approximately northwest to southeast bands that roughly following the physiographic regions of the province.\r\n\r\nThe geologic belts of BC from west to east are:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The insular belt; which covers the islands of BC (including Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii), and the southern tip of the Alaskan mainland coast.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The coast belt; which covers the mainland coast of BC from Vancouver, through Prince Rupert, and up through the BC-Yukon border to the edge of the Yukon-Alaska border.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The intermontane belt; which covers part of the interior region of BC from the Okanagan (including Kelowna), Thompson (including Kamloops), and Nicola valleys in the south, to Prince George in the middle of BC, up to Whitehorse in the Yukon. The intermontane belt is widest in the middle of the province, from Prince George on the east side extending westward.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The omineca belt; which contains the Kootenays (including Cranbrook) in the south where this belt is wide, through the middle of the province where it is quite narrow, up to Watson Lake in the Yukon where the belt becomes wide again.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The foreland belt; which contains the Rocky Mountains. For the southern half of the Rocky Mountain range, the province of BC is on the west side, and the province of Alberta is on the east side. Further north, the mountain range runs entirely through BC.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The interior plains; which contains the city of Calgary, Alberta in the south, and Dawson Creek, BC and Fort Nelson, BC in the north.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">[Return to Figure 17.3]<\/a>","rendered":"<p>Geomorphology is the scientific study of the characteristics and origins of landforms. Landforms arise through the interplay between <strong>endogenic<\/strong> processes fueled by Earth&#8217;s internal energy and <strong>exogenic<\/strong> processes ultimately fueled by the Sun. Endogenic processes tend to be responsible for the rock types and geological structures found in any particular area. Where geological structure dominates the surface landforms, they are called <strong>structural landforms<\/strong> and are the main focus of this lab.<\/p>\n<p>This lab will provide experience in identifying and analyzing rock samples, identifying tectonic plate boundaries, interpreting geologic maps and cross-sections, and interpreting British Columbia\u2019s (BCs) geologic history and rocks from the various geologic belts that span the province.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>After completion of this lab, you will be able to<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Distinguish between the three major classes of rocks.<\/li>\n<li>Understand the basic terminology relating to geological structures.<\/li>\n<li>Identify different types of tectonic plate boundaries.<\/li>\n<li>Interpret geological maps and cross sections.<\/li>\n<li>Analyze rocks from across the province of British Columbia, and predict which geologic belt the rock samples were obtained from.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Pre-Readings<\/h1>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Classification of Rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic<\/h2>\n<p>Rocks can be classified into three main categories: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Igneous Rocks<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Igneous rocks<\/strong> form from the cooling and crystallization of <strong>magma<\/strong>. Igneous rocks are divided depending on the environment in which the magma cooled:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Intrusive igneous <\/strong>or <strong>plutonic<\/strong> (named after Pluto, the god of the underworld in Roman mythology) rocks form from magma that cooled deep underground. Because the magma in this case cools very slowly, intrusive igneous rocks usually contain relatively large mineral crystals. Common examples include granite, granodiorite, diorite and gabbro.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Extrusive<\/strong> <strong>igneous <\/strong>or <strong>volcanic<\/strong> rocks form from magma in volcanic eruptions. Magma is\u00a0called <strong>lava<\/strong> once it reaches Earth\u2019s surface. Because in this case the magma cools quickly on Earth\u2019s surface, the mineral crystals in the rock are either very small or non-existent. In situations where the lava cools very quickly, a volcanic glass called obsidian is produced. Common examples of extrusive igneous rock include basalt, dacite, andesite and rhyolite.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The precise type of intrusive or extrusive rock that is produced from cooling magma is determined by the magma\u2019s chemical composition, especially the abundance of <strong>silica<\/strong> (SiO<sub>2<\/sub>). The silica content plays an important role in the physical characteristics of an igneous rock, including its resistance to weathering and erosion. It also plays an important role in the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions, because magma with a higher silica content is <strong>stickier<\/strong> and therefore more likely to produce an explosive eruption.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Sedimentary Rocks<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Sedimentary rocks <\/strong>are formed by the <strong>lithification<\/strong> (compaction, cementation and hardening) of weathering and erosion products which have accumulated in a fluvial, marine or lacustrine environment over long periods of time. These products can be of two basic types, which provides us with a sub-classification of sedimentary rocks:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Clastic<\/strong> sedimentary rocks are made from ground-down rock as well as other surviving minerals. Common examples include sandstone, conglomerate, siltstone or mudstone, and shale. Clastic sedimentary rocks exhibit a huge variation in their resistance to weathering and erosion depending on the degree of lithification of the clastic sediments they are composed of.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Carbonate<\/strong> or <strong>chemical<\/strong> sedimentary rocks are made from the precipitation of minerals, primarily calcium carbonate, dissolved in water. Common examples are limestone (CaCO<sub>3<\/sub>) and dolomite (CaMg(CO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub>).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">Metamorphic Rocks<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Metamorphic rocks<\/strong> are formed by the alteration or partial melting of a sedimentary, igneous or pre-existing metamorphic rock by heat and pressure beneath Earth\u2019s surface. Common examples include gneiss, marble, slate, schist and quartzite.<\/p>\n<p>The specific type of metamorphic rock in question is largely a function of the original (or <strong>parent<\/strong> rock). For example, shale (a sedimentary rock) typically metamorphoses into slate, and granite (an intrusive igneous rock) typically metamorphoses into gneiss.<\/p>\n<p>The type of metamorphic rock also depends on the degree of cooking that has occurred during the process of metamorphism. <strong>Foliated rocks <\/strong>result when the constituent minerals in the parent rock have been realigned into planar surfaces during metamorphism. <strong>Non-foliated rocks <\/strong>do not develop these planar fabrics.<\/p>\n<p>Some metamorphic rocks can be more compact compared to their parent rock. Quartzite, for example, is much more resistant to weathering and erosion than its parent rock sandstone. In other cases, metamorphism creates planes of weakness within the rock, such as the foliation in gneiss.<\/p>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Tectonic Plate Boundaries<\/h2>\n<p>The theory of plate tectonics provides the model that underlies our understanding of modern geology and the interactions between oceans and continents. Plate tectonics explains why the highest and lowest points on Earth occur where they do. Plate tectonics also explains why and where we can observe highly deformed rocks at or near the surface. The deformation is seen in the form of geologic features such as <strong>folds<\/strong> and <strong>faults<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>The type of plate boundary determines the types of deformation that may occur. <strong>Transform<\/strong>, or <strong>strike-slip <\/strong>plate boundaries occur when two plates move along each other in a predominately horizontal motion (scenario <em>a<\/em> in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1<\/a>). <strong>Divergent<\/strong> plate boundaries occur when two plates move away from each other (scenario <em>b<\/em>). <strong>Convergent<\/strong> plate boundaries occur when two plates move toward each other, or collide together (scenarios <em>c<\/em> and <em>d<\/em>).<a id=\"figure17.1\" class=\"internal\"><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_238\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-238\" style=\"width: 569px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-238 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"569\" height=\"415\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1.jpg 569w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1-300x219.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1-65x47.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1-225x164.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Fig-15.1-350x255.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 569px) 100vw, 569px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-238\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 17.1.<\/strong> Top: Schematic illustration of the main types of plate interactions: a) transform boundary, b) divergent boundary, c) and d) convergent boundaries. Bottom: Map of the main global tectonic plate boundaries. <em>Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/serc.carleton.edu\/details\/images\/2200.html\">D. McDonnell<\/a>, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\">Geologic Structures<\/h2>\n<p><strong>Geological structure<\/strong> can be defined as the arrangement and attitude of rocks in Earth&#8217;s <strong>lithosphere<\/strong>. Structure results from <strong>tectonism<\/strong>, the deformation of Earth&#8217;s crust by endogenic forces. Tectonism includes both <strong>diastrophism<\/strong>, large-scale deformations of the crust producing mountain ranges, ocean basins, etc., and <strong>volcanism<\/strong>, the creation of crustal material on a more localized scale through volcanic activity. Both sets of processes are a result of the mechanism of plate tectonics.<\/p>\n<p>Geological structures can be relatively simple if tectonic forces have not deformed the crust to any great degree. Examples include the horizontal beds of young sedimentary rocks which underlie much of the Prairie provinces of Canada. On the other hand, where deformation has been substantial, the resulting geological structure can be extremely complicated. Examples include the intensely deformed sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of many of BC\u2019s mountain ranges or the Himalaya of South Asia.<\/p>\n<p>Tectonism can produce a wide variety of geological structures including <strong>folds<\/strong> (flexures or bends in the crustal rocks due to compressional forces), and <strong>faults<\/strong> (brittle ruptures or fractures in the crustal rocks). Note that folding rarely involves rupturing of the rock, but faulting does.<\/p>\n<p>Folding and faulting impose two types of attitudes on the rock. <strong>Dip<\/strong> is the angle (measured in degrees) which the rock <strong>strata<\/strong> (layers, fault or any planar feature) make with a horizontal plane, measured in a direction perpendicular to the <strong>strike<\/strong> of the rock strata (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.2\">Figure 17.2<\/a>). Strike is the intersection between the plane in question and the horizontal plane. It is commonly expressed using the cardinal directions of the compass or as a full-circle azimuth.<a id=\"figure17.2\" class=\"internal\"><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1830\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1830\" style=\"width: 1800px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1830 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"1800\" height=\"699\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised.png 1800w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-300x117.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-1024x398.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-768x298.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-1536x596.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-65x25.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-225x87.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure17.2_revised-350x136.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1800px) 100vw, 1800px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1830\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 17.2.<\/strong> Strike and dip of geological strata. Note that apparent dip is any dip angle not measured perpendicular to the strike; it underestimates the true dip. <em>Source: F. de Scally, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 style=\"text-align: left\"><a id=\"geologic history\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Geologic History of British Columbia<\/h2>\n<p>The geologic history of BC dates back to a time when there was actually no BC west of today\u2019s Rocky Mountains. The western edge of the ancestral North American continent, composed of the ancient plutonic rocks of the North American <strong>craton<\/strong> (continental core), was situated roughly where Calgary and Dawson Creek are located today (Figure 17.3). West of this ancient shoreline, the submarine <strong>continental shelf<\/strong> extended roughly to where the town of Golden is situated today (just east of Revelstoke in Figure 17.3).<a id=\"figure17.3\" class=\"internal\"><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_240\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-240\" style=\"width: 1189px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-240 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888.jpg\" alt=\"image description linked to in caption\" width=\"1189\" height=\"1087\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888.jpg 1189w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-300x274.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-1024x936.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-768x702.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-65x59.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-225x206.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Fig-15.3-e1668726923888-350x320.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1189px) 100vw, 1189px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-240\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 17.3.<\/strong> Geological belts of British Columbia, which correspond roughly to the major physiographic regions of the province. <em>Source: F. de Scally, CC BY-NC-SA 4.0.<\/em>\u00a0<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#id17.3\">[Image description]<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The following sections describe important intervals in BC&#8217;s geologic history. Some of this information is derived from <em>British Columbia: A Natural History <\/em>(Cannings and Cannings, 2004). Note that <strong>Ga = billion years<\/strong>,\u00a0<strong>Ma = million years<\/strong>, a <strong>terrane<\/strong> is a fragment of crust formed on, or broken off of, a tectonic plate and added to crust on a different plate, and a <strong>superterrane<\/strong> is a group of related terranes.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">1.7 Ga to 180 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Over an immense time period of about 1.5 billion years, sediment eroded from the ancient North American craton is deposited in a <strong>miogeocline<\/strong> (a part of the submarine continental shelf along a tectonically quiescent continental margin where sediment deposition occurs) just offshore of the western margin of ancestral North America.<\/p>\n<p>Although this continental margin formed a part of different <strong>supercontinents<\/strong> at various times over this period, including <strong>Rodinia<\/strong> and <strong>Pangaea<\/strong>, it was tectonically quiescent. This allowed uninterrupted sediment deposition in the miogeocline. Both clastic sediments (muds and sands) and carbonate sediments (from coralline organisms) were deposited, which has important implications for the formation of the Foreland Belt much later.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">750-300 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>The supercontinent Rodinia broke up and another supercontinent Pangaea began to assemble. The wedge of sediment in the miogeocline offshore of ancestral North America continued to build and was eventually lithified into sedimentary rock. This included the burial of marine organisms around 530 Ma which today form the world-famous Burgess Shale fossil beds in Yoho National Park of BC.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">245 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>The supercontinent Pangaea began to break up. Earth\u2019s tectonic plates began their slow movement into their modern configuration.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">200 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Up to 2,000 km away in the ancestral Pacific Ocean, at an old plate boundary, the <strong>Intermontane<\/strong> <strong>superterrane<\/strong> began to assemble when the Stikinia and Quesnellia <strong>terranes<\/strong> (<strong>volcanic island arcs<\/strong>) were amalgamated with the sea floor sediments of the Cache Creek and Slide Mountain terranes. This produced a <strong>m\u00e9lange<\/strong> (mix) of sea-floor sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">180-150 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>A change in the direction of plate movement caused the ancestral North American continent to collide with the Intermontane superterrane. The tremendous heat and pressure of this slow-motion collision caused rocks of the miogeocline and the Intermontane superterrane to be metamorphosed at a <strong>weld<\/strong> to form the Omineca Belt. The metamorphic rocks of the Omineca Belt today form the Columbia, Cassiar, Monashee and Selkirk Mountains as well as the Quesnel and Shuswap Highlands of BC.<\/p>\n<p>Following the collision, the Intermontane Belt to the west consisted mostly of the m\u00e9lange rocks of this ancient superterrane, with occasional deeply buried and very old plutonic rocks protruding through these much younger rocks. Today, these protrusions form high peaks such as Big White Mountain near Kelowna. The shoreline of ancestral North America was located roughly at the western boundary of the Intermontane Belt by 150 Ma (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">120 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>By 120 Ma, the sedimentary rocks of the former miogeocline had been pushed eastward and upward by the tremendous force of the Intermontane Superterrane\u2019s collision to form the eastern Rocky Mountains of the Foreland Belt. These forces not only produced significant folding of the rocks, but also <strong>thrust faults<\/strong> when layers of strong, resistant carbonate rock were broken and shoved eastward in thick <strong>thrust sheets<\/strong>. The force of the collision also created a deep topographic depression east of the newly formed Rocky Mountains, which shortly began to fill with eroded sediment to eventually form weak clastic rocks such as shale and mudstone.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">100-60 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Another superterrane, the Insular superterrane, assembled earlier far offshore when the volcanic island arcs of the Wrangellia and Alexander terranes collided with the western edge of the Intermontane Belt. The m\u00e9lange of sea floor sedimentary rocks and volcanic rocks in the resulting Insular Belt today makes up the mountains of Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii.<\/p>\n<p>Following this collision, the west coast of BC looked much like it does today. The heat of this collision also created the intrusive igneous (plutonic) rocks of the Coast Belt, which today make up the Coast and Cassiar Mountains and Okanagan Highlands of BC.<\/p>\n<p>The force of this collision also continued to build the eastern Rocky Mountains in the Foreland Belt, with thrust faulting continuing to push rocks as much as 250 km eastward. For example, the rocks of Mount Rundle in Banff located near the eastern edge of the Foreland Belt were originally formed near where Revelstoke is situated today (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>). During this thrust faulting, the weak shales and mudstones deposited after 120 Ma east of the ancestral Rocky Mountains were shoved in between layers of strong limestone to form the classic weak-strong-weak-strong layering in the geological structure of the Foreland Belt. Further east, the horizontal layers of weak post-120 Ma sedimentary rock in the Interior Plains belt (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>) were unaffected by the force of the superterrane collisions, forming the modern flat Prairie landscape.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">85 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>The motion of oceanic tectonic plates to the west of BC changed, and instead of moving northeastward toward the North American plate, the motion became more northerly. This stretched the continental crust and produced extensive <strong>strike-slip faulting <\/strong>in BC. The best example of this was the 750 km of lateral displacement along the northern section of the Rocky Mountain Trench (at the boundary between the Omineca and Foreland Belts in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>). This stretching also created the parallel-to-the-coast orientation of BC\u2019s geologic belts (<a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a>) and the province\u2019s many mountain ranges.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">60-50 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>A standstill in plate movement allowed the geologic belts thrust eastward by the superterranes\u2019 collisions to slump back toward the west. This created roughly northwest-southeast oriented valleys in BC, including the southern portion of the Rocky Mountain Trench and the Okanagan Valley. This <strong>relaxation<\/strong> of the crust also allowed the deeply buried Monashee gneiss &#8211; at 2 Ga, the oldest rocks in BC &#8211; to be exposed in the Okanagan Valley.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">55-36 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Further relaxation of the crust allowed extensive volcanic lava flows to cover much of the BC Interior, especially in the Intermontane Belt. As a result, many of the original rocks of the Intermontane Belt were buried by basaltic lava flows. In general, volcanic eruptions in the Intermontane Belt produced basaltic rocks of lower silica content, while more explosive eruptions of lava with higher silica content in the Coast Belt produced rhyolitic rocks and breccias.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">40-5 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>A <strong>non-orogenic period<\/strong> brought mountain building to a halt, and allowed erosion by streams and rivers to begin to shape the modern drainage pattern of BC. An <strong>erosion surface<\/strong> of gentle hills formed west of the Foreland Belt, and by 10 Ma the mountains of the Coast Belt were so low that there was no longer a climatic <strong>rain shadow<\/strong>\u00a0on the leeward (east) side.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">21-5 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Multiple episodes of volcanic activity occurred in the Intermontane Belt and in the Coast Belt.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">5-1 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>A final <strong>orogenic period<\/strong> occurred when the <strong>subduction zone<\/strong> under small tectonic plates west of the North American coastline steepened, resulting in <strong>reheating<\/strong> of the crust in the Coast Belt. This reheating uplifted the 40-5 Ma erosion surface by about 2000 m, resulting in the modern mountains of the Coast Belt. The reheating also produced the volcanoes of today\u2019s Cascade Volcanic Arc, stretching from the southern Coast Mountains of BC to northern California. There was also uplifting and warping of much of the plateau surface in the Intermontane Belt. Today, the resulting undulating plateau surface is clearly visible from Pennask Summit along Highway 97C (the <strong>Okanagan Connector<\/strong>) west of Kelowna.<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\">2.6-0.01 Ma<\/h3>\n<p>Glaciations during the Pleistocene epoch eroded the modern landscape pattern of BC, including the rugged mountain ranges of the Foreland, Omineca, Coast and Insular Belts.<\/p>\n<h1>Lab Exercises<\/h1>\n<p>In this lab you will<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Classify rocks into the three major classes.<\/li>\n<li>Identify and locate different plate motions at tectonic boundaries.<\/li>\n<li>Interpret structural features from a geologic cross section.<\/li>\n<li>Match rock types to geologic history.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>You will need an internet connection to download maps. EX2 and EX3 may be easier if you are able to print the maps. It is assumed that you have successfully completed <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/chapter\/lab-12-biogeography-coastal-forest-virtual-field-trip\/\">Lab 12<\/a>. It is also assumed that you can convert between metres and feet. The exercises should take you 1\u00bd to 3 hours to complete.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX1: Classification of Rocks<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>Classify each of samples 1A-1F in the slide deck below (Figure 17.4a\u2013f) as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, and provide a one-sentence explanation of the reasoning for each of your choices. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=19\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.4<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"h5p\">\n<div id=\"h5p-19\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-19\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"19\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Lab 17, Exercise 1, Question 1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pdf\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-2273 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"690\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4.png 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4-261x300.png 261w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4-65x75.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4-225x259.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.4-350x403.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Figure 17.4.\u00a0<\/strong>Igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic slide deck.<\/p>\n<ol start=\"2\">\n<li>Classify igneous rock samples 2A-2D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.5a\u2013d) as <strong>intrusive<\/strong> (also known as plutonic) or <strong>extrusive<\/strong>\u00a0(also known as volcanic), and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=20\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.5<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"h5p\">\n<div id=\"h5p-20\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-20\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"20\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Lab 17, Exercise 1, Question 2\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pdf\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-2274 aligncenter\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5.png 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5-300x230.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5-225x173.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.5-350x268.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Figure 17.5. <\/strong>Igneous slide deck.<\/p>\n<ol start=\"3\">\n<li>Classify sedimentary rock samples 3A-3D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.6a\u2013d) as <strong>clastic<\/strong> or <strong>carbonate or chemical<\/strong>, and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=21\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.6<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"h5p\">\n<div id=\"h5p-21\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-21\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"21\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Lab 17, Exercise 1, Question 3\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pdf\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2275\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6.png 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6-300x230.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6-225x173.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.6-350x268.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Figure 17.6.\u00a0<\/strong>Sedimentary slide deck.<\/p>\n<ol start=\"4\">\n<li>Classify metamorphic rock samples 4A-4D in the slide deck below (Figure 17.7a\u2013d) as <strong>foliated<\/strong> or <strong>non-foliated<\/strong>, and provide a one-sentence explanation detailing your logic for each choice you made. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=22\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.7<\/a>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"h5p\">\n<div id=\"h5p-22\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-22\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"22\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Lab 17, Exercise 1, Question 4\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pdf\">\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2276\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"460\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7.png 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7-300x230.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7-225x173.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.7-350x268.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Figure 17.7.\u00a0<\/strong>Metamorphic slide deck.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX2: Plate Tectonic Boundaries<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol start=\"5\">\n<li><a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1 (bottom)<\/a> is a map showing the major plate boundaries found on Earth. The schematic cross-sections a) to d) show four models of relative plate motions. Download and use the map<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Detailed_Tectonic_Plate_Boundaries.pdf\"> Detailed Tectonic Plate Boundaries [PDF]<\/a> to determine which of these cross-sections best represents the plate motion at each of the numbered locations (1-9) found on <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.1\">Figure 17.1<\/a>. Explain your answers. the numbered locations are at the following tectonic plate boundaries:\n<ol start=\"1\">\n<li>African and Antarctic<\/li>\n<li>African and Arabian<\/li>\n<li>Indian-Australian and Eurasian<\/li>\n<li>Pacific and Eurasian<\/li>\n<li>Indian Australia and Pacific<\/li>\n<li>Pacific and North American<\/li>\n<li>Pacific and Antarctic<\/li>\n<li>Nazca and South American<\/li>\n<li>North American and African<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>At which of these numbered boundaries would you expect to find old rocks that have been folded and deformed? Explain your answer.<\/li>\n<li>At which of these numbered boundaries would you expect to find young undeformed rocks? Explain your answer.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX3: Geological Structure Basics<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.8\">Figure 17.8<\/a> shows a geological cross-section of the area near Banff, Alberta, Canada, that was created by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). Download a PDF version of Figure 17.8 <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/gscmap-a_1294A_e_1972_xs02_EastHalf.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Banff East-Half Cross Section [PDF]<\/a> and the corresponding \u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/gscmap-a_1294a_e_1972_mn01.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">1:50,000 Banff Geology map [PDF]<\/a> (legend is on the map) so that you can view the area in more detail.<a id=\"figure17.8\" class=\"internal\"><\/a><br \/>\n<figure id=\"attachment_253\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-253\" style=\"width: 1600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1032\/2020\/07\/Figure_15.8.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-241 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabs2020\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"1600\" height=\"527\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8.jpg 1600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-300x99.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-1024x337.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-768x253.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-1536x506.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-65x21.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-225x74.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Figure_15.8-350x115.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-253\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 17.8.<\/strong> Geological Survey of Canada: Banff East-Half Cross Section. <em>Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/geoscan.nrcan.gc.ca\/starweb\/geoscan\/servlet.starweb?path=geoscan\/fulle.web&amp;search1=R=108961\">Geological Survey of Canada<\/a>, Open Government License.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol start=\"8\">\n<li>Match the structural features identified on the GSC Banff East-Half Cross Section and listed in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#table17.1\">Table 17.1<\/a> with the corresponding location name found on the 1:50,000 Banff Geology map.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<table class=\"grid aligncenter\" style=\"border-collapse: collapse;width: 100%\">\n<caption><a id=\"table17.1\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Table 17.1. List of structural features to match with location names on Banff Geology map.<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Structural Feature<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Location Name on Banff Geology Map<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>Gently dipping strata<\/li>\n<li>Eroded asymmetrical anticline<\/li>\n<li>Steeply dipping strata<\/li>\n<li>Asymmetrical syncline overlain by recent glacial and fluvial deposits<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 50%\">\n<h6>Brewster Creek<\/h6>\n<h6>Fatigue Creek<\/h6>\n<h6>Fatigue Mountain<\/h6>\n<h6>Sulfur Mountain Thrust<\/h6>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<ol start=\"9\">\n<li>Which location name has the oldest rocks at the surface? Explain your answer.<\/li>\n<li>The <strong>Qd<\/strong>\u00a0beds on the geological map are fundamentally different from all the other formations shown on the geologic cross section. In what way are they different?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">EX4: Analysis of Rock Samples from British Columbia<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol start=\"11\">\n<li>Examine the eight rock samples in the slide deck below (Figure 17.9a\u2013h), then name the geologic belt on <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">Figure 17.3<\/a> from which each sample was obtained.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<div class=\"h5p\">\n<div id=\"h5p-23\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-23\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"23\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Lab 17, Exercise 4, Question 11\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pdf\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter size-full wp-image-2278\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"600\" height=\"955\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9.png 600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9-188x300.png 188w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9-65x103.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9-225x358.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2020\/07\/Figure-17.9-350x557.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><\/div>\n<p><strong>Figure 17.9.<\/strong> British Columbia rocks slide deck.<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Provide a two-sentence rationale for your choice of geologic belt for each sample. In answering this question, use information on rock type supplied in <a class=\"internal\" href=\"#geologic history\">BC&#8217;s Geologic History<\/a>, along with information from the internet regarding the rock names. If the slide deck does not display below, <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-admin\/admin-ajax.php?action=h5p_embed&amp;id=23\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">click here for Figure 17.9<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Reflection Questions<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>BC is quite unique in that is has mountain ranges dominated by sedimentary rocks (e.g., the Rocky Mountains), mountain ranges dominated by metamorphic rocks (e.g., the Monashee Mountains) and mountain ranges dominated by igneous rocks (e.g., the Coast Mountains). Assume you have never visited any of these mountain ranges and write a short 2-3 sentence explanation about which one you think would be most geologically interesting to you, and why.<\/li>\n<li>If you live in BC, which geologic belt do you live in, and what kinds of rocks are dominant in your area?<\/li>\n<li>Did students from similar areas post similar looking rocks? Why or why not?<\/li>\n<li>EX2 examined large global tectonic plate boundaries, but when you can look in more detail there is a lot more going on. Look closely at the western North American plate boundaries in the <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1340\/2021\/03\/Detailed_Tectonic_Plate_Boundaries.pdf\">Detailed Tectonic Plate Boundaries [PDF]<\/a> from EX2, and examine the boundaries that exist between the Pacific Plate, the Juan de Fuca Plate, and the North American Plate. Answer the following questions, and explain your thinking.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>What will eventually happen to the Juan de Fuca plate?<\/li>\n<li>Why are there volcanoes in the Cascade and Coast mountains?<\/li>\n<li>If you could see 20 million years into the future, where would you have to look for land west of the San Andreas Fault?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>References<\/h1>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Cannings, R., &amp; Cannings, S. (2004). <em>British Columbia: A natural history<\/em>. Greystone Books.<\/p>\n<h3>Image Descriptions<\/h3>\n<p><strong><a id=\"id17.3\" class=\"internal\"><\/a>Figure 17.3. Geological belts of British Columbia<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>map of the geological belts that can be found in the province of BC, and the bordering edges of the neighboring province (Alberta), territory (Yukon), and US States (Washington and Alaska). There are six geologic belts that each run as approximately northwest to southeast bands that roughly following the physiographic regions of the province.<\/p>\n<p>The geologic belts of BC from west to east are:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The insular belt; which covers the islands of BC (including Vancouver Island and Haida Gwaii), and the southern tip of the Alaskan mainland coast.<\/li>\n<li>The coast belt; which covers the mainland coast of BC from Vancouver, through Prince Rupert, and up through the BC-Yukon border to the edge of the Yukon-Alaska border.<\/li>\n<li>The intermontane belt; which covers part of the interior region of BC from the Okanagan (including Kelowna), Thompson (including Kamloops), and Nicola valleys in the south, to Prince George in the middle of BC, up to Whitehorse in the Yukon. The intermontane belt is widest in the middle of the province, from Prince George on the east side extending westward.<\/li>\n<li>The omineca belt; which contains the Kootenays (including Cranbrook) in the south where this belt is wide, through the middle of the province where it is quite narrow, up to Watson Lake in the Yukon where the belt becomes wide again.<\/li>\n<li>The foreland belt; which contains the Rocky Mountains. For the southern half of the Rocky Mountain range, the province of BC is on the west side, and the province of Alberta is on the east side. Further north, the mountain range runs entirely through BC.<\/li>\n<li>The interior plains; which contains the city of Calgary, Alberta in the south, and Dawson Creek, BC and Fort Nelson, BC in the north.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><a class=\"internal\" href=\"#figure17.3\">[Return to Figure 17.3]<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":970,"menu_order":18,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["saoirse","fes-de-scally","todd-redding"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[63,79,70],"license":[],"class_list":["post-245","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-fes-de-scally","contributor-saoirse","contributor-todd-redding"],"part":23,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/970"}],"version-history":[{"count":27,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2502,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/revisions\/2502"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/23"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/245\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=245"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=245"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=245"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/geoglabmanualv2\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=245"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}