{"id":361,"date":"2023-03-03T18:01:50","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T23:01:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/chapter\/an-intersectional-approach-to-understanding-the-challenges-of-autistic-women\/"},"modified":"2025-10-10T14:02:26","modified_gmt":"2025-10-10T18:02:26","slug":"an-intersectional-approach-to-understanding-the-challenges-of-autistic-women","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/chapter\/an-intersectional-approach-to-understanding-the-challenges-of-autistic-women\/","title":{"raw":"An Intersectional Approach to Understanding the Challenges of Autistic Women","rendered":"An Intersectional Approach to Understanding the Challenges of Autistic Women"},"content":{"raw":"
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Keywords:<\/strong> Disability, Intersectionality, Women, Diagnosis, Autism<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n

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In the media, roles filled for Autistic characters are often portrayed by men. Examples include the movie Rain Man<\/em>, and TV shows such as The Big Bang Theory<\/em>,<\/em> Atypical<\/em> and The Good Doctor<\/em>. While the media attempts to showcase Autism, there is a general assumption that only males can be Autistic. Autism may also be perceived as a dichotomy, either an Autistic individual is a genius or requires substantial support. Yet, two important factors are missed in the media presentation and stereotypes. Autism exists on a spectrum and women can be Autistic. The way Autism is often presented in the media is just one example of gender bias. Through an intersectional framework, gender bias in the research literature, diagnostic criteria and additional challenges women on the Autism Spectrum encounter will be explored in this article.<\/p>\r\n

The theory of intersectionality was created by Kimberl\u00e9 Crenshaw in 1989 to understand the intersecting nature of multiple oppressed identities. These identities form various experiences that differ from those who share one or a few of the identities (Crenshaw n.d.). Intersectionality originated from the need to understand Black women's challenges in society. It served as an expansion to feminist and antiracist theories which focused mainly on oppression in a singular way (Crenshaw n.d.). Crenshaw emphasized the importance of viewing oppression in terms of multiple identities by stating that Black women are not the dominant race and are also not men. Thus, creating multiple oppressive identities not otherwise faced by Black men or White women (Crenshaw 1991). The interesting feature of intersectionality is how it considers identities as intersecting facets of one another, rather than viewing individual forms of oppression through the lens of the most impactful (Pearson 2010). Furthermore, the framework of intersectionality allows for a better understanding of societal barriers and how to promote inclusion (Crenshaw n.d.). The theory of intersectionality can be utilized in disability research to explore the barriers in society associated with this marginalized population (Ballan 2008).<\/p>\r\n

Along with intersectionality, the social model of disability views disabilities as the consequence of barriers in society that disable a person, which contrasts with the medical model (Saxe 2017). The main distinction between the social model and the medical model is that the medical modal emphasizes individual deficiencies (Saxe 2017). The barriers created for individuals with disabilities are constructed as part of the able-bodied communities that they live in. Removing social and physical barriers would allow people with disabilities to live normal lives (Ballan 2008; Saxe 2017). Autism has long been conceptualized through the medical model and thus promotes a deficit account (Saxe 2017). Autism advocates in the neurodiverse movement have promoted the notion of Autism as a difference in neurology and as a part of natural human diversity (Anon 2021). The theory of intersectionality connects the social model of disability and the neurodiverse movement into a thorough understanding of how other social identities such as gender, class, and race, connect with an Autistic identity (Saxe 2017). Intersectionality allows for a greater understanding of the unique experiences Autistic individuals encounter, while allowing deficit-oriented practices to be challenged, and for inequalities to be examined within social structures (Liasidou 2013).<\/p>\r\n

Gender is a broad term that describes characteristics of masculinity and femininity that are socially constructed. While it is important to acknowledge variation in gender expression and identity, it is beyond the scope of this article. When exploring gender from a male\/female binary, those who are female with a disability often experience distinct challenges and disadvantages that set them apart from males with disabilities. (Saxe 2017). Negative outcomes for women with disabilities include higher rates of domestic violence, sexual assault and low employment rates (Naami, Hayashi, and Liese 2012; Saxe 2017; Thiara, Hague, and Mullender 2011). It has been noted that women with developmental disabilities face unfathomable abuse (Saxe 2017). In a study conducted by Pecora et al. (2019) revealed that Autistic women were 78.2% more likely to be a victim of unwanted sexual advances compared to 57.7% of non-autistic women (Pecora et al. 2019). Men\u2019s experience differs with disabilities as they benefit from privilege even though they are impaired by ableism within social structures (Saxe 2017). Aside from their autism diagnosis men live relatively unprejudiced lives (Saxe 2017). However, according to the framework of intersectionality, this would change based on sexual orientation, class, and ethnicity (Saxe 2017).<\/p>\r\n

Three significant barriers describe the realities for women on the autism spectrum. For women who are cisgender, this sets the tone for gender inequality (Saxe 2017). Next women who are autistic are bombarded with an ableist society. This perpetuates a power struggle between themselves and their able-bodied peers. Often Autistic women face challenges to social inclusion in their communities (Saxe 2017). Lastly, Autistic women are underrepresented in the research literature and as such, diagnostic tools to assess autism have largely focused on the male population (Shefcyk 2015). Delving into these three identities allows for a greater understanding of the challenges that autistic women face (Saxe 2017).<\/p>\r\n

According to the medical model, Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopment condition characterized by restricted or repetitive behaviours, sensory difficulties, and deficits in social interaction and social communication (CDC 2022b). According to the <\/span>Center <\/span>for<\/span> Disease Control<\/span> (20<\/span>22<\/span>), in 1992 the prevalence rate of autism was 1 in 150 children<\/span>,<\/span> and the current research as of 2018 suggests a <\/span>prevalence rate of 1 in 44 children <\/span>with<\/span> a 4:1 ratio of males diagnosed to females<\/span> (CDC 2022a; Loomes, Hull, and Mandy 2017). With a large population of individuals diagnosed with autism and with the numbers increasing, <\/span>it is important to develop effective strategies<\/span> that aid in the navigation of an ableist and neurotypical society <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Furthermore, since women are <\/span>viewed as the minority in autism research <\/span>attention must be<\/span> brought to the issue<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders have been identified and <\/span>do<\/span> not appear to present the same way in both sexes <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>S<\/span>everal<\/span> studies examining sex differences in the presentation of autism demonstrate that women show less stereotypical characteristics such as repetitive <\/span>behaviours<\/span> compared to men <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012). In terms of fine motor skills, women generally have better control <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012). <\/span>W<\/span>omen have more sensory issues than men and have greater difficulty in social situations, with challenges in communication<\/span> (Lai et al. 2011).<\/span> Furthermore, <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience more emotional problems and mental health <\/span>disorders<\/span> such as anxiety and depression <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012; Saxe 2017). Lastly,<\/span> women often experience <\/span>one or more <\/span>intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disabilit<\/span>ies<\/span> along with autism which may present difficulty in accurate diagnosis <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Understanding the presentation of autism in women is important<\/span> for several reasons. The differences contribute to specific barriers that impact the process of <\/span>assessment<\/span>,<\/span> diagnosis,<\/span> interventions, and social inclusion <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Applying intersectionality to the sex differences in research will allow for <\/span>a <\/span>better <\/span>understanding of the challenges that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women face<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

In the research literature<\/span>,<\/span> women have been often underrepresented because of <\/span>the \u201cmale as norm\u201d ideology, also known as <\/span>androcentricity which<\/span> has dominated development studies for decades<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>.<\/span> Studies that have focused on autism have largely focused on male participants with few if any women <\/span>included <\/span>and have been generalized <\/span>(Saxe 2017; Shefcyk 2015). Therefore, sex differences have not been accurately portrayed for <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women<\/span>. Generalizing male characteristics of autism puts women at a greater disadvantage as <\/span>androcentricity<\/span> sets the foundation <\/span>for<\/span> autism research <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>With <\/span>intersectionality<\/span> in mind<\/span>, women are not only at a disadvantage in research but the theories and interventions <\/span>generated create <\/span>barriers<\/span> as supports are designed with males in mind <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

One theory that contributes to <\/span>androcentricity<\/span> and has dominated autism research is the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory proposed by Cohen<\/span> (2002)<\/span>.<\/span> Essentially <\/span>the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory suggests a difference in <\/span>cognition<\/span> and <\/span>affective<\/span> styles for females and males<\/span> (Cohen 2002). Males<\/span> tend<\/span> to have <\/span>systematic approaches to cognition while female approaches lean towards empathizing <\/span>(Cohen 2002). Systematic approaches refer to being able to predict <\/span>the <\/span>future <\/span>behaviours<\/span> of others based on recurring patterns<\/span>,<\/span> while empathizing refers to examining the thoughts and feeling<\/span>s<\/span> of others to predict <\/span>behaviour<\/span> (Cohen 2002).<\/span> Cohen<\/span> (2002)<\/span> hypothesized that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic individuals display less empathy than is typical for a male and systemize more. The foundation of the theory rests in biological processes in the brain<\/span> which are altered resulting in more male characteristics which <\/span>set<\/span> up a male bias <\/span>(Cohen et al. 2011).<\/span> The underlying mechanisms according to <\/span>the theory include differences in Y or X chromosomes and exposure to testosterone in utero<\/span> (Cohen et al. 2011). <\/span><\/p>\r\n

Th<\/span>e Extreme Male Brain<\/span> T<\/span>heory has inflicted harm <\/span>on<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women and has created outrage<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Women in the autism community have protested against the idea of having a male brain because the <\/span>underlying <\/span>assumption is that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women do not have empathy <\/span>(Saxe 2017). The major criticism of the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory <\/span>is<\/span> that attention t<\/span>o the needs of <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women <\/span>has<\/span> been relatively ignored. The <\/span>policies<\/span> and supports stemming from Extreme Male Brain research <\/span>have<\/span> contributed to significant barriers to women on the <\/span>Autism s<\/span>pectrum<\/span> (Saxe 2017). <\/span>Intersectionality helps to explore the barriers <\/span>that<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women encounter in research by recognizing male bias within procedures and protocols<\/span>. The experiences of women in autism research are exceptionally different <\/span>from<\/span> that of males<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

W<\/span>ith<\/span> the research literature <\/span>focusing<\/span> mainly on male participants, assessment and diagnostic tools have a strong male bias. <\/span>Due to<\/span> a <\/span>strong emphasis on<\/span> the <\/span>m<\/span>ale bias, it is highly probable that many women are underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed <\/span>(Kirkovski, Enticott, and Fitzgerald 2013). Women who are better <\/span>at masking their autistic characteristics and appear to be functioning well <\/span>on the outside <\/span>are particularly susceptible <\/span>(Kirkovski et al. 2013; Lai et al. 2011). Part of the complexity of diagnosing women <\/span>not only comes from <\/span>sex-specific<\/span> criteria <\/span>but with having one or more intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disabilities <\/span>along with <\/span>autism<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Women who would benefit from an autism diagnosis may receive a diagnosis of a separate intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disability, furthering the idea that autism is specifically a male disability<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Without an accurate diagnosis<\/span> and appropriate <\/span>support<\/span>, women have a lower quality of life. <\/span>Over time<\/span> this may manifest into more severe symptoms <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Accessing an appropriate diagnosis can help guide women towards<\/span> self-acceptance of their unique experiences and aid in self-compassion <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> The intersecting nature of being female with an <\/span>A<\/span>utistic identity highlight important barriers <\/span>to<\/span> accessing an appropriate diagnosis<\/span>. This is<\/span> due to screening measures that <\/span>are designed specifically <\/span>for<\/span> male <\/span>characteristics<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

The last significant barrier encountered by women on the<\/span> a<\/span>utism<\/span> spectrum examined through intersectionality is social inclusion. In general people with disabilities experience prejudice through dehumanization<\/span> and<\/span> infantilization<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Furthermore,<\/span> being disabled may lead to <\/span>assumptions based on <\/span>incompetence,<\/span> and assumptions based on the notion that <\/span>individuals with disabilities want to be cured <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> Individuals on the <\/span>autism <\/span>spectrum face additional discrimination due to di<\/span>fferences<\/span> in<\/span> social interaction<\/span>, communication<\/span> and <\/span>appearing less empathetic<\/span> (Saxe 2017). <\/span>Diff<\/span>erences <\/span>in<\/span> social interaction <\/span>and communication <\/span>contribute<\/span> to feelings of isolation in women which may be due to their intersecting identities<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Additionally, feelings of isolation can lead to a sense of not belonging in society and contribute to mental health issues such as depression<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Tragically, some Autistic individuals may go on to end their lives due to the isolation and difference they feel in comparison to others<\/span> (Anon 2019). <\/span><\/p>\r\n

Disability intersects with the way that individuals experience their gender<\/span>. Autistic women <\/span>often experience a dist<\/span>ance<\/span> from the male <\/span>A<\/span>utistic identity and feel removed from the stereotypes of femininity found in neurotypical women <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Part of the reason that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience disconnection from femininity comes from the diff<\/span>erences <\/span>surrounding the understanding of social <\/span>and gender norms. Diff<\/span>erences<\/span> in conceptualizing the gender binary likely <\/span>contribute<\/span> to women feeling less like neurotypical women who understand societal expectations <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Women are also expected to <\/span>be empathizers and better communicators according to the Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory <\/span>(Cohen 2002). Thus, <\/span>experiencing<\/span> dif<\/span>ferences<\/span> with <\/span>neurotypical <\/span>social situations and social norms put <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women at a greater disadvantage in society. This makes <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women more vulnerable to discrimination compared to neurotypical individuals <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

The intersecting factors of being a woman with autism <\/span>create<\/span> experiences of social isolation otherwise not faced by individuals with other disabilities or men with autism<\/span> (Saxe 2017). This excludes <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women in two distinct ways. <\/span>The first way women experience exclusion is from the neurotypical female role<\/span>,<\/span> and secondly from the autistic community<\/span> (Shefcyk 2015). <\/span>W<\/span>omen <\/span>in general <\/span>are held to specific societal <\/span>standards<\/span> and<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women are <\/span>subjected<\/span> to the same standards<\/span>. Yet, Autistic women have<\/span> trouble<\/span> fitting into a neurotypical female role<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Second, the standards placed on <\/span>Autistic women<\/span> are not the same as <\/span>those <\/span>o<\/span>f<\/span> A<\/span>utistic men. This further complicates social communication and enhances the <\/span>challenges<\/span> women experience <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> From here, intersectionality demonstrates the marginalized experiences of <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women and the need to further break down the barriers<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

Intersectionality of the challenges faced <\/span>by<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women <\/span>highlights<\/span> various areas of concern that need to be addressed in further research. <\/span>First<\/span>,<\/span> more attention <\/span>to<\/span> the inclusion of women <\/span>in autism research<\/span> is required in addition<\/span> to<\/span> comparisons between the sexe<\/span>s<\/span> (Saxe 2017; Shefcyk 2015). This will allow for better sex-related supports to be implemented and facilitate a higher quality of life for women on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum<\/span> (<\/span>Shefcyk<\/span> 2015)<\/span>.<\/span> Second, utilizing an intersectional framework requires procedures within research to be changed in terms of participant samples<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Intersectionality holds the position that women on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum have completely different experiences than men on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum and neurotypical females<\/span> (Saxe 2017). A critical analysis <\/span>through the lens of intersectionality would require 4 participant groups to be focused on in research. Two groups of neurotypical individuals and <\/span>two groups of neurodiverse people<\/span> broken down into<\/span> binary<\/span> sex<\/span> categories of male and female<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Third, a core feature of intersectionality emphasizes that barriers are created within social structures. Therefore, to gain a thorough understanding of the challenges <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience, exploration of all social domains is required <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Finally<\/span>, <\/span>autistic individuals in general need to be <\/span>included in<\/span> the <\/span>conceptualization of <\/span>research designs <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\r\n

To conclude<\/span>, <\/span>both <\/span>identity-first and <\/span>person-first <\/span>language <\/span>were<\/span> used throughout this <\/span>paper <\/span>to reflect the various ways one identifies with autism.<\/span> I<\/span>ntersectionality provides a framework to view the complexities associated with being an <\/span>A<\/span>utistic woman in society. It highlights several barriers<\/span> in the realm of research, diagnostic criteria and social inclusion<\/span> that need to be addressed<\/span>. Addressing <\/span>barriers such as male bias in assessments, research bias and challenges with social inclusion both with femininity and in the Autistic community <\/span>will help<\/span> to better support <\/span>women and<\/span> contribute to <\/span>a <\/span>higher<\/span> quality of life<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n

\r\n\r\nReferences<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAnon. 2019. Why Everything You Know about Autism Is Wrong | Jac Den Houting | TEDxMacquarieUniversity.\r\n\r\nAnon. 2021. \u201cWhat We Believe - Autistic Self Advocacy Network.\u201d Https:\/\/Autisticadvocacy.Org\/. Retrieved November 11, 2022 (https:\/\/autisticadvocacy.org\/about-asan\/what-we-believe<\/a>\/).\r\n\r\nBallan, Michelle S. 2008. \u201cDisability and Sexuality within Social Work Education in the USA and Canada: The Social Model of Disability as a Lens for Practice.\u201d Social Work Education 27(2):194\u2013202. doi: 10.1080\/02615470701709675.\r\n\r\nBaron-Cohen, Simon. 2002. \u201cThe Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism.\u201d Trends in Cognitive Sciences 6(6):248\u201354. doi: 10.1016\/S1364-6613(02)01904-6.\r\n\r\nBaron-Cohen, Simon, Michael V. Lombardo, Bonnie Auyeung, Emma Ashwin, Bhismadev Chakrabarti, and Rebecca Knickmeyer. 2011. \u201cWhy Are Autism Spectrum Conditions More Prevalent in Males?\u201d PLOS Biology 9(6):e1001081. doi: 10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001081.\r\n\r\nCDC. 2022a. \u201cData and Statistics on Autism Spectrum Disorder | CDC.\u201d Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved October 11, 2022 (https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/autism\/data.html<\/a>).\r\n\r\nCDC. 2022b. \u201cDiagnostic Criteria | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC.\u201d Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 16, 2022 (https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/ncbddd\/autism\/hcp-dsm.html<\/a>).\r\n\r\nCrenshaw, Kimberle. 1991. \u201cMapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color.\u201d Stanford Law Review 43(6):1241\u201399. doi: 10.2307\/1229039.\r\n\r\nCrenshaw, Kimberle. n.d. \u201cDemarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics.\u201d 31.\r\n\r\nKirkovski, Melissa, Peter G. Enticott, and Paul B. Fitzgerald. 2013. \u201cA Review of the Role of Female Gender in Autism Spectrum Disorders.\u201d Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 43(11):2584\u20132603. doi: 10.1007\/s10803-013-1811-1.\r\n\r\nLai, Meng-Chuan, Michael V. Lombardo, Greg Pasco, Amber N. V. Ruigrok, Sally J. Wheelwright, Susan A. Sadek, Bhismadev Chakrabarti, Mrc Aims Consortium, and Simon Baron-Cohen. 2011. \u201cA Behavioral Comparison of Male and Female Adults with High Functioning Autism Spectrum Conditions.\u201d PLOS ONE 6(6):e20835. doi: 10.1371\/journal.pone.0020835.\r\n\r\nLiasidou, Anastasia. 2013. \u201cIntersectional Understandings of Disability and Implications for a Social Justice Reform Agenda in Education Policy and Practice.\u201d Disability & Society 28(3):299\u2013312. doi: 10.1080\/09687599.2012.710012.\r\n\r\nLoomes, Rachel, Laura Hull, and William Polmear Locke Mandy. 2017. \u201cWhat Is the Male-to-Female Ratio in Autism Spectrum Disorder? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.\u201d Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 56(6):466\u201374. doi: 10.1016\/j.jaac.2017.03.013.\r\n\r\nMandy, William, Rebecca Chilvers, Uttom Chowdhury, Gemma Salter, Anna Seigal, and David Skuse. 2012. \u201cSex Differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Evidence from a Large Sample of Children and Adolescents.\u201d Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42(7):1304\u201313. doi: 10.1007\/s10803-011-1356-0.\r\n\r\nNaami, Augustina, Reiko Hayashi, and Hank Liese. 2012. \u201cThe Unemployment of Women with Physical Disabilities in Ghana: Issues and Recommendations.\u201d Disability & Society 27(2):191\u2013204. doi: 10.1080\/09687599.2011.644930.\r\n\r\nPearson, Holly. 2010. \u201cComplicating Intersectionality Through the Identities of a Hard of Hearing Korean Adoptee: An Autoethnography.\u201d Equity & Excellence in Education 43(3):341\u201356. doi: 10.1080\/10665684.2010.496642.\r\n\r\nPecora, Laura A., Grace I. Hancock, Gary B. Mesibov, and Mark A. Stokes. 2019. \u201cCharacterising the Sexuality and Sexual Experiences of Autistic Females.\u201d Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 49(12):4834\u201346. doi: 10.1007\/s10803-019-04204-9.\r\n\r\nSaxe, Amanda. 2017. \u201cThe Theory of Intersectionality: A New Lens for Understanding the Barriers Faced by Autistic Women.\u201d Canadian Journal of Disability Studies 6(4):153\u201378. doi: 10.15353\/cjds.v6i4.386.\r\n\r\nShefcyk, Allison. 2015. \u201cCount Us in: Addressing Gender Disparities in Autism Research.\u201d Autism 19(2):131\u201332. doi: 10.1177\/1362361314566585.\r\n\r\nThiara, Ravi K., Gill Hague, and Audrey Mullender. 2011. \u201cLosing out on Both Counts: Disabled Women and Domestic Violence.\u201d Disability & Society 26(6):757\u201371. doi: 10.1080\/09687599.2011.602867.\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
\n

Keywords:<\/strong> Disability, Intersectionality, Women, Diagnosis, Autism<\/p>\n

\n

In the media, roles filled for Autistic characters are often portrayed by men. Examples include the movie Rain Man<\/em>, and TV shows such as The Big Bang Theory<\/em>,<\/em> Atypical<\/em> and The Good Doctor<\/em>. While the media attempts to showcase Autism, there is a general assumption that only males can be Autistic. Autism may also be perceived as a dichotomy, either an Autistic individual is a genius or requires substantial support. Yet, two important factors are missed in the media presentation and stereotypes. Autism exists on a spectrum and women can be Autistic. The way Autism is often presented in the media is just one example of gender bias. Through an intersectional framework, gender bias in the research literature, diagnostic criteria and additional challenges women on the Autism Spectrum encounter will be explored in this article.<\/p>\n

The theory of intersectionality was created by Kimberl\u00e9 Crenshaw in 1989 to understand the intersecting nature of multiple oppressed identities. These identities form various experiences that differ from those who share one or a few of the identities (Crenshaw n.d.). Intersectionality originated from the need to understand Black women’s challenges in society. It served as an expansion to feminist and antiracist theories which focused mainly on oppression in a singular way (Crenshaw n.d.). Crenshaw emphasized the importance of viewing oppression in terms of multiple identities by stating that Black women are not the dominant race and are also not men. Thus, creating multiple oppressive identities not otherwise faced by Black men or White women (Crenshaw 1991). The interesting feature of intersectionality is how it considers identities as intersecting facets of one another, rather than viewing individual forms of oppression through the lens of the most impactful (Pearson 2010). Furthermore, the framework of intersectionality allows for a better understanding of societal barriers and how to promote inclusion (Crenshaw n.d.). The theory of intersectionality can be utilized in disability research to explore the barriers in society associated with this marginalized population (Ballan 2008).<\/p>\n

Along with intersectionality, the social model of disability views disabilities as the consequence of barriers in society that disable a person, which contrasts with the medical model (Saxe 2017). The main distinction between the social model and the medical model is that the medical modal emphasizes individual deficiencies (Saxe 2017). The barriers created for individuals with disabilities are constructed as part of the able-bodied communities that they live in. Removing social and physical barriers would allow people with disabilities to live normal lives (Ballan 2008; Saxe 2017). Autism has long been conceptualized through the medical model and thus promotes a deficit account (Saxe 2017). Autism advocates in the neurodiverse movement have promoted the notion of Autism as a difference in neurology and as a part of natural human diversity (Anon 2021). The theory of intersectionality connects the social model of disability and the neurodiverse movement into a thorough understanding of how other social identities such as gender, class, and race, connect with an Autistic identity (Saxe 2017). Intersectionality allows for a greater understanding of the unique experiences Autistic individuals encounter, while allowing deficit-oriented practices to be challenged, and for inequalities to be examined within social structures (Liasidou 2013).<\/p>\n

Gender is a broad term that describes characteristics of masculinity and femininity that are socially constructed. While it is important to acknowledge variation in gender expression and identity, it is beyond the scope of this article. When exploring gender from a male\/female binary, those who are female with a disability often experience distinct challenges and disadvantages that set them apart from males with disabilities. (Saxe 2017). Negative outcomes for women with disabilities include higher rates of domestic violence, sexual assault and low employment rates (Naami, Hayashi, and Liese 2012; Saxe 2017; Thiara, Hague, and Mullender 2011). It has been noted that women with developmental disabilities face unfathomable abuse (Saxe 2017). In a study conducted by Pecora et al. (2019) revealed that Autistic women were 78.2% more likely to be a victim of unwanted sexual advances compared to 57.7% of non-autistic women (Pecora et al. 2019). Men\u2019s experience differs with disabilities as they benefit from privilege even though they are impaired by ableism within social structures (Saxe 2017). Aside from their autism diagnosis men live relatively unprejudiced lives (Saxe 2017). However, according to the framework of intersectionality, this would change based on sexual orientation, class, and ethnicity (Saxe 2017).<\/p>\n

Three significant barriers describe the realities for women on the autism spectrum. For women who are cisgender, this sets the tone for gender inequality (Saxe 2017). Next women who are autistic are bombarded with an ableist society. This perpetuates a power struggle between themselves and their able-bodied peers. Often Autistic women face challenges to social inclusion in their communities (Saxe 2017). Lastly, Autistic women are underrepresented in the research literature and as such, diagnostic tools to assess autism have largely focused on the male population (Shefcyk 2015). Delving into these three identities allows for a greater understanding of the challenges that autistic women face (Saxe 2017).<\/p>\n

According to the medical model, Autism Spectrum Disorder is a neurodevelopment condition characterized by restricted or repetitive behaviours, sensory difficulties, and deficits in social interaction and social communication (CDC 2022b). According to the <\/span>Center <\/span>for<\/span> Disease Control<\/span> (20<\/span>22<\/span>), in 1992 the prevalence rate of autism was 1 in 150 children<\/span>,<\/span> and the current research as of 2018 suggests a <\/span>prevalence rate of 1 in 44 children <\/span>with<\/span> a 4:1 ratio of males diagnosed to females<\/span> (CDC 2022a; Loomes, Hull, and Mandy 2017). With a large population of individuals diagnosed with autism and with the numbers increasing, <\/span>it is important to develop effective strategies<\/span> that aid in the navigation of an ableist and neurotypical society <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Furthermore, since women are <\/span>viewed as the minority in autism research <\/span>attention must be<\/span> brought to the issue<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders have been identified and <\/span>do<\/span> not appear to present the same way in both sexes <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>S<\/span>everal<\/span> studies examining sex differences in the presentation of autism demonstrate that women show less stereotypical characteristics such as repetitive <\/span>behaviours<\/span> compared to men <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012). In terms of fine motor skills, women generally have better control <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012). <\/span>W<\/span>omen have more sensory issues than men and have greater difficulty in social situations, with challenges in communication<\/span> (Lai et al. 2011).<\/span> Furthermore, <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience more emotional problems and mental health <\/span>disorders<\/span> such as anxiety and depression <\/span>(Mandy et al. 2012; Saxe 2017). Lastly,<\/span> women often experience <\/span>one or more <\/span>intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disabilit<\/span>ies<\/span> along with autism which may present difficulty in accurate diagnosis <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Understanding the presentation of autism in women is important<\/span> for several reasons. The differences contribute to specific barriers that impact the process of <\/span>assessment<\/span>,<\/span> diagnosis,<\/span> interventions, and social inclusion <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Applying intersectionality to the sex differences in research will allow for <\/span>a <\/span>better <\/span>understanding of the challenges that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women face<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

In the research literature<\/span>,<\/span> women have been often underrepresented because of <\/span>the \u201cmale as norm\u201d ideology, also known as <\/span>androcentricity which<\/span> has dominated development studies for decades<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>.<\/span> Studies that have focused on autism have largely focused on male participants with few if any women <\/span>included <\/span>and have been generalized <\/span>(Saxe 2017; Shefcyk 2015). Therefore, sex differences have not been accurately portrayed for <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women<\/span>. Generalizing male characteristics of autism puts women at a greater disadvantage as <\/span>androcentricity<\/span> sets the foundation <\/span>for<\/span> autism research <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>With <\/span>intersectionality<\/span> in mind<\/span>, women are not only at a disadvantage in research but the theories and interventions <\/span>generated create <\/span>barriers<\/span> as supports are designed with males in mind <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

One theory that contributes to <\/span>androcentricity<\/span> and has dominated autism research is the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory proposed by Cohen<\/span> (2002)<\/span>.<\/span> Essentially <\/span>the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory suggests a difference in <\/span>cognition<\/span> and <\/span>affective<\/span> styles for females and males<\/span> (Cohen 2002). Males<\/span> tend<\/span> to have <\/span>systematic approaches to cognition while female approaches lean towards empathizing <\/span>(Cohen 2002). Systematic approaches refer to being able to predict <\/span>the <\/span>future <\/span>behaviours<\/span> of others based on recurring patterns<\/span>,<\/span> while empathizing refers to examining the thoughts and feeling<\/span>s<\/span> of others to predict <\/span>behaviour<\/span> (Cohen 2002).<\/span> Cohen<\/span> (2002)<\/span> hypothesized that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic individuals display less empathy than is typical for a male and systemize more. The foundation of the theory rests in biological processes in the brain<\/span> which are altered resulting in more male characteristics which <\/span>set<\/span> up a male bias <\/span>(Cohen et al. 2011).<\/span> The underlying mechanisms according to <\/span>the theory include differences in Y or X chromosomes and exposure to testosterone in utero<\/span> (Cohen et al. 2011). <\/span><\/p>\n

Th<\/span>e Extreme Male Brain<\/span> T<\/span>heory has inflicted harm <\/span>on<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women and has created outrage<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Women in the autism community have protested against the idea of having a male brain because the <\/span>underlying <\/span>assumption is that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women do not have empathy <\/span>(Saxe 2017). The major criticism of the Extreme Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory <\/span>is<\/span> that attention t<\/span>o the needs of <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women <\/span>has<\/span> been relatively ignored. The <\/span>policies<\/span> and supports stemming from Extreme Male Brain research <\/span>have<\/span> contributed to significant barriers to women on the <\/span>Autism s<\/span>pectrum<\/span> (Saxe 2017). <\/span>Intersectionality helps to explore the barriers <\/span>that<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women encounter in research by recognizing male bias within procedures and protocols<\/span>. The experiences of women in autism research are exceptionally different <\/span>from<\/span> that of males<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

W<\/span>ith<\/span> the research literature <\/span>focusing<\/span> mainly on male participants, assessment and diagnostic tools have a strong male bias. <\/span>Due to<\/span> a <\/span>strong emphasis on<\/span> the <\/span>m<\/span>ale bias, it is highly probable that many women are underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed <\/span>(Kirkovski, Enticott, and Fitzgerald 2013). Women who are better <\/span>at masking their autistic characteristics and appear to be functioning well <\/span>on the outside <\/span>are particularly susceptible <\/span>(Kirkovski et al. 2013; Lai et al. 2011). Part of the complexity of diagnosing women <\/span>not only comes from <\/span>sex-specific<\/span> criteria <\/span>but with having one or more intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disabilities <\/span>along with <\/span>autism<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Women who would benefit from an autism diagnosis may receive a diagnosis of a separate intellectual<\/span>\/learning<\/span> disability, furthering the idea that autism is specifically a male disability<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Without an accurate diagnosis<\/span> and appropriate <\/span>support<\/span>, women have a lower quality of life. <\/span>Over time<\/span> this may manifest into more severe symptoms <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Accessing an appropriate diagnosis can help guide women towards<\/span> self-acceptance of their unique experiences and aid in self-compassion <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> The intersecting nature of being female with an <\/span>A<\/span>utistic identity highlight important barriers <\/span>to<\/span> accessing an appropriate diagnosis<\/span>. This is<\/span> due to screening measures that <\/span>are designed specifically <\/span>for<\/span> male <\/span>characteristics<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

The last significant barrier encountered by women on the<\/span> a<\/span>utism<\/span> spectrum examined through intersectionality is social inclusion. In general people with disabilities experience prejudice through dehumanization<\/span> and<\/span> infantilization<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Furthermore,<\/span> being disabled may lead to <\/span>assumptions based on <\/span>incompetence,<\/span> and assumptions based on the notion that <\/span>individuals with disabilities want to be cured <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> Individuals on the <\/span>autism <\/span>spectrum face additional discrimination due to di<\/span>fferences<\/span> in<\/span> social interaction<\/span>, communication<\/span> and <\/span>appearing less empathetic<\/span> (Saxe 2017). <\/span>Diff<\/span>erences <\/span>in<\/span> social interaction <\/span>and communication <\/span>contribute<\/span> to feelings of isolation in women which may be due to their intersecting identities<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Additionally, feelings of isolation can lead to a sense of not belonging in society and contribute to mental health issues such as depression<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Tragically, some Autistic individuals may go on to end their lives due to the isolation and difference they feel in comparison to others<\/span> (Anon 2019). <\/span><\/p>\n

Disability intersects with the way that individuals experience their gender<\/span>. Autistic women <\/span>often experience a dist<\/span>ance<\/span> from the male <\/span>A<\/span>utistic identity and feel removed from the stereotypes of femininity found in neurotypical women <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Part of the reason that <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience disconnection from femininity comes from the diff<\/span>erences <\/span>surrounding the understanding of social <\/span>and gender norms. Diff<\/span>erences<\/span> in conceptualizing the gender binary likely <\/span>contribute<\/span> to women feeling less like neurotypical women who understand societal expectations <\/span>(Saxe 2017). Women are also expected to <\/span>be empathizers and better communicators according to the Male Brain <\/span>T<\/span>heory <\/span>(Cohen 2002). Thus, <\/span>experiencing<\/span> dif<\/span>ferences<\/span> with <\/span>neurotypical <\/span>social situations and social norms put <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women at a greater disadvantage in society. This makes <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women more vulnerable to discrimination compared to neurotypical individuals <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

The intersecting factors of being a woman with autism <\/span>create<\/span> experiences of social isolation otherwise not faced by individuals with other disabilities or men with autism<\/span> (Saxe 2017). This excludes <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women in two distinct ways. <\/span>The first way women experience exclusion is from the neurotypical female role<\/span>,<\/span> and secondly from the autistic community<\/span> (Shefcyk 2015). <\/span>W<\/span>omen <\/span>in general <\/span>are held to specific societal <\/span>standards<\/span> and<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women are <\/span>subjected<\/span> to the same standards<\/span>. Yet, Autistic women have<\/span> trouble<\/span> fitting into a neurotypical female role<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Second, the standards placed on <\/span>Autistic women<\/span> are not the same as <\/span>those <\/span>o<\/span>f<\/span> A<\/span>utistic men. This further complicates social communication and enhances the <\/span>challenges<\/span> women experience <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span> From here, intersectionality demonstrates the marginalized experiences of <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women and the need to further break down the barriers<\/span> (Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

Intersectionality of the challenges faced <\/span>by<\/span> A<\/span>utistic women <\/span>highlights<\/span> various areas of concern that need to be addressed in further research. <\/span>First<\/span>,<\/span> more attention <\/span>to<\/span> the inclusion of women <\/span>in autism research<\/span> is required in addition<\/span> to<\/span> comparisons between the sexe<\/span>s<\/span> (Saxe 2017; Shefcyk 2015). This will allow for better sex-related supports to be implemented and facilitate a higher quality of life for women on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum<\/span> (<\/span>Shefcyk<\/span> 2015)<\/span>.<\/span> Second, utilizing an intersectional framework requires procedures within research to be changed in terms of participant samples<\/span> (Saxe 2017)<\/span>. Intersectionality holds the position that women on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum have completely different experiences than men on the <\/span>Autism <\/span>spectrum and neurotypical females<\/span> (Saxe 2017). A critical analysis <\/span>through the lens of intersectionality would require 4 participant groups to be focused on in research. Two groups of neurotypical individuals and <\/span>two groups of neurodiverse people<\/span> broken down into<\/span> binary<\/span> sex<\/span> categories of male and female<\/span> (Saxe 2017). Third, a core feature of intersectionality emphasizes that barriers are created within social structures. Therefore, to gain a thorough understanding of the challenges <\/span>A<\/span>utistic women experience, exploration of all social domains is required <\/span>(Saxe 2017). <\/span>Finally<\/span>, <\/span>autistic individuals in general need to be <\/span>included in<\/span> the <\/span>conceptualization of <\/span>research designs <\/span>(Saxe 2017).<\/span><\/p>\n

To conclude<\/span>, <\/span>both <\/span>identity-first and <\/span>person-first <\/span>language <\/span>were<\/span> used throughout this <\/span>paper <\/span>to reflect the various ways one identifies with autism.<\/span> I<\/span>ntersectionality provides a framework to view the complexities associated with being an <\/span>A<\/span>utistic woman in society. It highlights several barriers<\/span> in the realm of research, diagnostic criteria and social inclusion<\/span> that need to be addressed<\/span>. Addressing <\/span>barriers such as male bias in assessments, research bias and challenges with social inclusion both with femininity and in the Autistic community <\/span>will help<\/span> to better support <\/span>women and<\/span> contribute to <\/span>a <\/span>higher<\/span> quality of life<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n

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Anon. 2021. \u201cWhat We Believe – Autistic Self Advocacy Network.\u201d Https:\/\/Autisticadvocacy.Org\/. Retrieved November 11, 2022 (https:\/\/autisticadvocacy.org\/about-asan\/what-we-believe<\/a>\/).<\/p>\n

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Pearson, Holly. 2010. \u201cComplicating Intersectionality Through the Identities of a Hard of Hearing Korean Adoptee: An Autoethnography.\u201d Equity & Excellence in Education 43(3):341\u201356. doi: 10.1080\/10665684.2010.496642.<\/p>\n

Pecora, Laura A., Grace I. Hancock, Gary B. Mesibov, and Mark A. Stokes. 2019. \u201cCharacterising the Sexuality and Sexual Experiences of Autistic Females.\u201d Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 49(12):4834\u201346. doi: 10.1007\/s10803-019-04204-9.<\/p>\n

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Thiara, Ravi K., Gill Hague, and Audrey Mullender. 2011. \u201cLosing out on Both Counts: Disabled Women and Domestic Violence.\u201d Disability & Society 26(6):757\u201371. doi: 10.1080\/09687599.2011.602867.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":1134,"menu_order":42,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["tara-fay-sedar-she-her"],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[88],"license":[],"class_list":["post-361","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-tara-fay-sedar-she-her"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/361","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1134"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/361\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":437,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/361\/revisions\/437"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/361\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=361"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=361"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=361"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/gri1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=361"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}