4.13 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Divide and Split
Can you guess what the colourful image in Figure 4.13.1 represents? It shows a eukaryotic cell during the process of cell division. In particular, the image shows the cell in a part of cell division called anaphase, where the DNA is being pulled to opposite ends of the cell. Normally, DNA is located in the nucleus of most human cells. The nucleus divides before the cell itself splits in two, and before the nucleus divides, the cell’s DNA is replicated (or copied). There must be two copies of the DNA so that each daughter cell will have a complete copy of the genetic material from the parent cell. How is the replicated DNA sorted and separated so that each daughter cell gets a complete set of the genetic material? To answer that question, you first need to know more about DNA and the forms it takes.
The Forms of DNA
Except when a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a grainy material called chromatin. Only once a cell is about to divide and its DNA has replicated does DNA condense and coil into the familiar X-shaped form of a chromosome, like the one shown below.
Most cells in the human body have two pairs of 23 different chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. Cells that have two pairs of chromosomes are called diploid. Because DNA has already replicated when it coils into a chromosome, each chromosome actually consists of two identical structures called sister chromatids. Sister chromatids are joined together at a region called a centromere.
Mitosis
The process in which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides is called mitosis. During mitosis, the two sister chromatids that make up each chromosome separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This is shown in the figure below.
Mitosis actually occurs in four phases. The phases are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Prophase
The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase. During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope (the membrane surrounding the nucleus) breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. Centrioles are small organelles found only in eukaryotic cells. They help ensure that the new cells that form after cell division each contain a complete set of chromosomes. As the centrioles move apart, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle consists of fibres made of microtubules.
Metaphase
During metaphase, spindle fibres attach to the centromere of each pair of sister chromatids. As you can see in Figure 4.13.7, the sister chromatids line up at the equator (or center) of the cell. The spindle fibres ensure that sister chromatids will separate and go to different daughter cells when the cell divides.
Anaphase
During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres divide. The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the spindle fibres. This is a little like reeling in a fish by shortening the fishing line. One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell, and the other sister chromatid moves to the opposite pole. At the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a complete set of chromosomes.
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form chromatin. This prepares the genetic material for directing the metabolic activities of the new cells. The spindle also breaks down, and new nuclear envelopes form.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm splits in two and the cell divides, as shown below. In animal cells, the plasma membrane of the parent cell pinches inward along the cell’s equator until two daughter cells form. Thus, the goal of mitosis and cytokinesis is now complete, because one parent cell has given rise to two daughter cells. The daughter cells have the same chromosomes as the parent cell.
4.13 Summary
- Until a eukaryotic cell divides, its nuclear DNA exists as a grainy material called chromatin. After DNA replicates and the cell is about to divide, the DNA condenses and coils into the X-shaped form of a chromosome. Each chromosome actually consists of two sister chromatids, which are joined together at a centromere.
- Mitosis is the process during which the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell divides. During this process, sister chromatids separate from each other and move to opposite poles of the cell. This happens in four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
- Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division, during which the cytoplasm splits in two and two daughter cells form.
4.13 Review Questions
- Describe the different forms that DNA takes before and during cell division in a eukaryotic cell.
-
- Identify the four phases of mitosis in an animal cell, and summarize what happens during each phase.
- Order the diagrams of the stages of mitosis:
- Explain what happens during cytokinesis in an animal cell.
- What do you think would happen if the sister chromatids of one of the chromosomes did not separate during mitosis?
- True or False:
4.13 Explore More
Mitosis, NDSU Virtual Cell Animations project (ndsuvirtualcell), 2012.
Nondisjunction (Trisomy 21) – An Animated Tutorial, Kristen Koprowski, 2012.
Attributions
Figure 4.13.1
Anaphase_IF by Roy van Heesbeen on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.2
Chromosomes by OpenClipArt-Vectors on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/service/license/).
Figure 4.13.3
Chromosome/ Chromatid/ Sister Chromatid by Christine Miller is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.4
Simple Mitosis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] via CK-12 Foundation is used under a CC BY-NC 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) license.
©CK-12 Foundation Licensed under 
• Terms of Use • Attribution
Figure 4.13.5
Mitotic Prophase [tiny] by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.6
Prophase Eukaryotic Mitosis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.7
Mitotic_Metaphase by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.8
Metaphase Eukaryotic Mitosis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.9
Anaphase [adapted] by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.10
Anaphase_eukaryotic_mitosis.svg by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.11
Mitotic Telophase by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.12
Telophase Eukaryotic Mitosis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.13
Mitotic Cytokinesis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 4.13.14
Cytokinesis Eukaryotic Mitosis by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal [LadyofHats] on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
References
Koprowski, K., Cabey, R. [Kristen Koprowski]. (2012). Nondisjunction (Trisomy 21) – An Animated Tutorial. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EA0qxhR2oOk&feature=youtu.be
NDSU Virtual Cell Animations project [ndsuvirtualcell]. (2012). Mitosis. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C6hn3sA0ip0&t=21s
Created by CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Why Are Humans Such Sweaty Animals?
Combine exercise and a hot day, and you get sweat — and lots of it. Sweating is one of the adaptations humans have evolved to maintain homeostasis, or a constant internal environment. When sweat evaporates from the skin, it uses up some of the excess heat energy on the skin, thus helping to reduce the body's temperature. Humans are among the sweatiest of all species, with a fine-tuned ability to maintain a steady internal temperature, even at very high outside temperatures.
Unifying Principles of Biology
All living things have mechanisms for homeostasis. Homeostasis is one of four basic principles or theories that explain the structure and function of all species (including our own). Whether biologists are interested in ancient life, the life of bacteria, or how humans could live on Mars, they base their understanding of biology on these unifying principles:
- Cell theory
- Gene theory
- Homeostasis
- Evolutionary theory
Cell Theory
According to cell theory, all living things are made of cells, and living cells come only from other living cells. Each living thing begins life as a single cell. Some living things, including bacteria, remain single-celled. Other living things, including plants and animals, grow and develop into many cells. Your own body is made up of an amazing 100 trillion cells. But even you — like all other living things — began life as a single cell.
Watch this TED-Ed video about the origin of cell theory:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OpBylwH9DU
The Wacky History of Cell Theory - Lauren Royal-Woods, TED-Ed, 2012
Gene Theory
Gene theory is the idea that the characteristics of living things are controlled by genes, which are passed from parents to their offspring. Genes are located on larger structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are found inside every cell, and they consist of molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Those molecules of DNA are encoded with instructions that "tell" cells how to behave.
Homeostasis
Homeostasis, or the condition in which a system is maintained in a more-or-less steady state, is a characteristic of individual living things, like the human ability to sweat. Homeostasis also applies to the entire biosphere, wherever life is found on Earth. Consider the concentration of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. Oxygen makes up 21 per cent of the atmosphere, and this concentration is fairly constant. What maintains this homeostasis in the atmosphere? The answer is living things.
Most living things need oxygen to survive, so they remove oxygen from the air. On the other hand, many living things, including plants, give off oxygen when they convert carbon dioxide and water to food in the process of photosynthesis. These two processes balance out so the air maintains a constant level of oxygen.
Evolutionary Theory
Evolution is a change in the characteristics of populations of living things over time. Evolution can occur by a process called natural selection, which results from random genetic mutations in a population. If these mutations lead to changes that allow the living things to better survive, then their chances of surviving and reproducing in a given environment increase. They will then pass more genes to the next generation. Over many generations, this can lead to major changes in the characteristics of those living things. Evolution explains how living things are changing today, as well as how modern living things descended from ancient life forms that no longer exist on Earth.
Traits that help living things survive and reproduce in a given environment are called adaptations. You can see an obvious adaptation in the image below. The chameleon is famous for its ability to change its colour to match its background as camouflage. Using camouflage, the chameleon can hide in plain sight.
Feature: Myth vs. Reality
Misconceptions about evolution are common. They include the following myths:
Myth |
Reality |
| "Evolution is "just" a theory or educated guess." | Scientists accept evolutionary theory as the best explanation for the diversity of life on Earth because of the large body of scientific evidence supporting it. Like any scientific theory, evolution is a broad, evidence-supported explanation for multiple phenomena. |
| "The theory of evolution explains how life on Earth began." | The theory of evolution explains how life changed on Earth after it began. |
| "The theory of evolution means that humans evolved from apes like those in zoos." | Humans and modern apes both evolved from a common ape-like ancestor millions of years ago. |
2.3 Summary
- Four basic principles or theories unify all fields of biology: cell theory, gene theory, homeostasis, and evolutionary theory.
- According to cell theory, all living things are made of cells and come from other living cells.
- Gene theory states that the characteristics of living things are controlled by genes that pass from parents to offspring.
- All living things strive to maintain internal balance, or homeostasis.
- The characteristics of populations of living things change over time through the process of micro-evolution as organisms acquire adaptations, or traits that better suit them to a given environment.
Use the flashcards below to review the four principles:
2.3 Review Questions
-
- How does sweating help the human body maintain homeostasis?
- Explain cell theory and gene theory.
- Describe an example of homeostasis in the atmosphere.
- Describe how you can apply the concepts of evolution,natural selection, adaptation, and homeostasis to the human ability to sweat.
- Which of the four unifying principles of biology is primarily concerned with:
- how DNA is passed down to offspring?
- how internal balance is maintained?
- _____________ are located on ______________.
- chromosomes; genes
- genes;chromosomes
- genes; traits
- none of the above
- Define an adaptation and give one example.
- Explain how gene theory and evolutionary theory relate to each other.
- Does evolution by natural selection occur within one generation? Why or why not?
- Explain why you think chameleons evolved the ability to change their colour to match their background, as well as how natural selection may have acted on the ancestors of chameleons to produce this adaptation.
2.3 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wg5DBH6uMCw&feature=emb_logo
Myths and misconceptions about evolution - Alex Gendler, TEDEd, 2013
Attributions
Figure 2.3.1
Photo(perspiration), by Hans Reniers on Unsplash. is used under the Unsplash license (https://unsplash.com/license).
Figure 2.3.2
Mediterranean Chameleon Reptile Lizard, by user:1588877 on Pixabay, is used under the Pixabay license (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
References
TED-Ed. (2012, June 4). The wacky history of cell theory - Lauren Royal-Woods. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OpBylwH9DU&feature=youtu.be
TED-Ed. (2013, July 8). Myths and misconceptions about evolution - Alex Gendler. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZt1Gn0R22Q&t=10s
By Christine Miller
DNA Replication: Overview
DNA replication is required for the growth or replication of an organism. You started as one single cell and are now made up of approximately 37 trillion cells! Each and every one of these cells contains the exact same copy of DNA, which originated from the first cell that was you. How did you get from one set of DNA, to 37 million sets, one for each cell? Through DNA replication.
Knowledge of DNA’s structure helped scientists understand DNA replication, the process by which DNA is copied. It occurs during the synthesis (S) phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle. DNA must be copied so that each new daughter cell will have a complete set of chromosomes after cell division occurs.
DNA replication is referred to as "semi-conservative". What this means is when a strand of DNA is replicated, each of the two original strands acts as a template for a new complementary strand. When the replication process is complete, there are two identical sets of DNA, each containing one of the original strands of DNA, and one newly synthesized strand.
DNA replication involves a certain sequence of events. For each event, there is a specific enzyme which facilitates the process. There are four main enzymes that facilitate DNA replication: helicase, primase, DNA polymerase, and ligase.
DNA Replication: The Process
DNA replication begins when an enzyme called helicase unwinds, and unzips the DNA molecule. If you recall the structure of DNA, you may remember that it consists of two long strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases. This forms a ladder-like structure which is in a coiled shape. In order to start DNA replication, helicase needs to unwind the molecule and break apart the hydrogen bonds holding together complementary nitrogenous bases. This causes the two strands of DNA to separate.
Small molecules called single-stranded binding proteins (SSB) attach to the loose strands of DNA to keep them from re-forming the hydrogen bonds that helicase just broke apart.
Once the nitrogenous bases from the inside of the DNA molecule are exposed, the creation of a new, complementary strand can begin. DNA polymerase creates the new strand, but it needs some help in finding the correct place to begin, so primase lays down a short section of RNA primer (shown in green in Figure 5.4.3). Once this short section of primer is laid, DNA polymerase can bind to the DNA molecule and start connecting nucleotides in the correct order to match the sequence of nitrogenous bases on the template (original) strand.
If we think about the DNA molecule, we may remember that the two strands of DNA run antiparallel to one another. This means that in the sugar-phosphate backbone, one strand of the DNA has the sugar oriented in the "up" position, and the other strand has the phosphate oriented in the "up" position (see Figure 5.4.4). DNA polymerase is an enzyme which can only work in one direction on the DNA molecule. This means that one strand of DNA can be replicated in one long string, as DNA polymerase follows helicase as it unzips the DNA molecule. This strand is termed the "leading strand". The other strand, however, can only be replicated in small chunks since the DNA polymerase replicates in the opposite direction that helicase is unzipping. This strand is termed the "lagging strand". These small chunks of replicated DNA on the lagging strand are called Okazaki fragments.
Take a look at Figure 5.4.5 and find the Okazaki fragments, the leading strand and the lagging strand.
Once DNA polymerase has replicated the DNA, a third enzyme called ligase completes the final stage of DNA replication, which is repairing the sugar-phosphate backbone. This connects the gaps in the backbone between Okazaki fragments. Once this is complete, the DNA coils back into its classic double helix structure.
Semi-Conservative Replication
When DNA replication is complete, there are two identical sets of double stranded DNA, each with one strand from the original, template, DNA molecule, and one strand that was newly synthesized during the DNA replication process. Because each new set of DNA contains one old and one new strand, we describe DNA as being semi-conservative.
Watch this video for a great overview of DNA replication:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqe4thU-os8
DNA Replication (Updated), Amoeba Sisters, 2019.
5.4 Summary
- DNA replication requires the action of three main enzymes each with their own specific role:
- Helicase unzips and unwinds the DNA molecule.
- DNA polymerase creates a new complementary strand of DNA on each of the originals halves that were separated by helicase. New nucleotides are added through complementary base pairing: A pairs with T, and C with G.
- Ligase repairs gaps in the sugar-phosphate backbone between Okazaki fragments.
- DNA replication is semi-conservative because each daughter molecule contains one strand from the parent molecule and one new complementary strand.
5.4 Review Questions
2. Why are Okazaki fragments formed?
- Because helicase only unzips DNA in one direction.
- Because DNA is in a double helix.
- Because DNA polymerase only replicates DNA in one direction.
- Because DNA replication is semi-conservative.
3. Drag and drop to label the diagram.
5.4 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw
DNA replication - 3D, yourgenome, 2015.
Attributions
Figure 5.4.1
DNA_replication_split.svg by Madprime on Wikimedia Commons is used under a CC0 1.0
Public Domain Dedication license (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en).
Figure 5.4.2
Helicase and single stranded binding proteins (1) by Christine Miller is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
Figure 5.4.3
DNA polymerase and primase by Christine Miller is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
Figure 5.4.4
DNA strands run antiparallel by Christine Miller is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
Figure 5.4.5
Leading and lagging strand/ DNA Replication/ by yourgenome on Flickr is used under a CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/) license.
References
Amoeba Sisters. (2019, June 28). DNA replication (Updated). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qqe4thU-os8&feature=youtu.be
Betts, J. G., Young, K.A., Wise, J.A., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D.H., Korol, O., Johnson, J.E., Womble, M., DeSaix, P. (2013, April 25). Figure 3.24 DNA Replication [digital image]. In Anatomy and Physiology. OpenStax. https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/3-3-the-nucleus-and-dna-replication CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
yourgenome. (2015, June 26). DNA replication - 3D. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHqw&feature=youtu.be
Created by CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Primate Pals
Figure 2.5.1 Humans and monkeys share an evolutionary past. Humans belong to the animal kingdom, which includes small organisms — like insects — and larger organisms, like humans and monkeys. From genes to morphology to behavior, humans and monkeys are similar in many ways because they share an evolutionary past. Humans and monkeys also both belong to the order Primate, which means they have more traits in common with each other than with insects.
How Humans Are Classified
You probably know that modern humans are members of the species Homo sapiens. But what is our place in nature? How is our species classified? A simple classification is represented in the taxonomic diagram below, along with some representative characteristics.
Let's start at the bottom of the chart, with the kingdom. Among other animal characteristics, humans can move on their own, so they are placed in the animal kingdom. Further, humans belong to the animal phylum known as chordates, because we have a backbone. The human animal has hair and milk glands, so we are placed in the class of mammals. Within the mammal class, humans are placed in the primate order.
Humans as Primates
Living members of the primate order include monkeys, apes, and humans. At some point in the distant past, we shared ape-like ancestors with all of these modern groups of primates. We share between 93 and 99 per cent of our DNA sequences with them, which provides hard evidence that we have relatively recent common ancestors. Besides genes, what traits do we share with other primates?
Primates are considered generalists among the mammals. A generalist is an organism that can thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions. Generalists also make use of a variety of different resources; for example, they consume many types of food. Although primates exhibit a wide range of characteristics, there are several traits shared by most primates.
Primate Traits
Primates have pentadactylism, or five digits (fingers or toes) on each extremity (hand or foot). The fingers and toes have nails instead of claws and are covered with sensitive tactile pads. The thumbs (and in many species, the big toes, as well) are opposable, which means they can be brought into opposition with the other digits, allowing both a power grasp and a precision grip. You can see these features of the primate extremities in the capuchin monkey pictured in Figure 2.15.
The five fingers, opposable thumb, and other primate features of the hand give this capuchin monkey great manual dexterity. This is the primary reason these primates are trained to assist quadraplegic human beings with daily tasks.
The primate body is generally semi-erect or erect, and primates have one of several modes of locomotion, including walking on all four legs (quadrupedalism), vertical clinging and leaping, swinging from branch to branch in trees (brachiation), or walking on two legs (bipedalism, which today only applies to humans). The primate shoulder girdle has a collar bone (clavicle), which is associated with a wide range of motion of the upper limbs.
Relative to other mammals, primates rely less on their sense of smell. They have a reduced snout and relatively small area in the brain for processing olfactory (odor) information. Primates rely more on their sense of vision, which shows several improvements over that of other mammals. Most primates can see in colour. Primates also tend to have large eyes with forward placement in a relatively flat face. This results in an overlap of the visual fields of the two eyes, allowing stereoscopic (or three-dimensional) vision. Other indications of the importance of vision to primates is the protection given the eyes by a complete bony eye socket and the large size of the occipital lobe of the brain, where visual information is processed.
Primates are noted for their relatively large brains, high degree of intelligence, and complex behaviors. The part of the brain that is especially enlarged in primates is the cerebrum, which analyzes and synthesizes sensory information and transforms it to motor behaviors appropriate to the environment. Primates tend to have longer lifespans than most other mammals. In particular, there is a lengthening of the prenatal period and the postnatal period during which infants depend on adults, providing an extended opportunity for learning among juveniles. Most primates live in social groups. In fact, primates are among the most social of animals. Depending on the species, adult nonhuman primates may live in mated pairs or in groups with hundreds of members. Humans and some nonhuman primates can also make and use tools. The crab-eating macaques pictured below provide examples of tool use in nonhuman primates.
Life in the Trees
Scientists think that many primate traits are adaptations to an arboreal (or tree-dwelling) lifestyle. Primates are thought to have evolved in trees, and the majority of primates still live in trees. For life in the trees, the sense of vision trumps the sense of smell, and three-dimensional (3D) vision is especially important for grasping the next branch or limb. Having mobile limbs, a good grip, and manual dexterity are matters of life and death when one lives high above the ground. While some modern primates are mainly terrestrial (ground dwelling) rather than arboreal, all primates possess adaptations for life in the trees.
The map to the left shows the present distribution of nonhuman primates around the world. Tropical forests in Central and South America are home to many species of monkeys, including the squirrel monkey pictured above. Old World tropical forests in Africa and Asia are home to many other species of monkeys, including the crab-eating macaque pictured above, as well as all modern apes.
Humans as Hominids
Who are our closest relatives in the primate order? We are placed in the family called Hominidae. Any member of this family is called a hominid. Hominids include four living genera: chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, and humans. Among these four genera are just seven living species: two in each genera, except humans, with our sole living species, Homo sapiens. The orangutan mother pictured cradling her child shows how similar these hominids are to us.
Hominids are relatively large, tailless primates, ranging in size from the bonobo (or pygmy chimpanzee) — which may weigh as little as 30 kg (66 lb) — to the eastern gorilla, which may weigh over 200 kg (440 lb). Most modern humans fall somewhere within that range. In all species of hominids, males are somewhat larger and stronger, on average, than females, but the differences may not be significant. Except for humans, hominids are mainly quadrupedal, although they can get around bipedally if need be to gather food or nesting materials. Humans are the only habitually bipedal species of living hominids.
The Human Genus
Within the hominid family, our species is placed in the genus Homo. Our species, Homo sapiens, is the only living species in this genus. Several earlier species of Homo existed, but have since gone extinct, including the species Homo erectus.
By about 2.8 million years ago, early Homo species such as Homo erectus were probably nearly as efficient at bipedal locomotion as modern humans. Relative to quadrupedal primates, they had a broader pelvis, longer legs, and arched feet. However, from the neck up, they were still quite different from us. They typically had bigger jaws and teeth, a sloping forehead, and a relatively small brain.
Homo sapiens
During the roughly 2.8 million years of the evolution of the Homo genus, the remaining features of Homo sapiens evolved. These features include:
- Small front teeth (incisors and canines) with relatively large molars, at least compared to other primates.
- A decrease in the size of the jaws and face and an increase in the size of the cranium, forming a nearly vertical forehead.
- A tremendous enlargement of the brain, especially in the cerebrum, which is the site of higher intellectual functions.
The increase in brain size occurred very rapidly as far as evolutionary change goes, between about 800 thousand and 100 thousand years ago. During this period, the size of the brain increased from about 600 cm3 to about 1400 cm3 when the earliest Homo sapiens appeared. This was also a period of rapid climate change, and many scientists think that climate change was a major impetus for the evolution of a larger, more complex brain. In this view, as the environment became more unpredictable, bigger and "smarter" brains helped our ancestors survive. Running parallel to the biological evolution of the brain was the development of culture and technology, which were adapted for the purpose of exploiting the environment. These developments, made possible by a big brain, allowed modern humans and their recent ancestors to occupy virtually the entire world and become the dominant land animals.
Our species Homo sapiens is the most recent iteration of the basic primate body plan. Because of our big, complex brain, we clearly have a much greater capacity for abstract thought and technological advances than any other primate — even chimpanzees, who are our closest living relatives. However, it is important to recognize that in other ways, we are not as adept as other living hominids around the world. We are physically weaker than gorillas, far less agile than orangutans, and arguably less well-mannered than bonobos.
Feature: Human Biology in the News
Imagine squeezing through a 7-inch slit in rock to enter a completely dark cave full of lots and lots of old bones. It might sound like a nightmare to most people, but it was a necessary part of a recent exploration of human origins in South Africa as reported in the New York Times in September 2015. The cave and its bones were actually first discovered by spelunkers in 2013, who reported it to paleontologists. An international research project was soon launched to explore the cave. The researchers would eventually conclude that the cave was a hiding place for the dead of a previously unknown early species of Homo, whom they called Homo naledi. Members of this species lived in South Africa around 2.5 to 2.8 million years ago.
Homo naledi individuals were about 5 feet (about 1.5 metres) tall and weighed around 100 pounds (about 45 kilograms), so they probably had no trouble squeezing into the cave. Modern humans are considerably larger on average. In order to retrieve the fossilized bones from the cave, six slender researchers had to be found on social media. They were the only ones who could fit through the crack to access the cave. The work was difficult and dangerous, but also incredibly exciting. The site constitutes one of the largest samples of any extinct early Homo species anywhere in the world, and the fossils represent a completely new species of that genus. The site also suggests that early members of our genus were intentionally depositing their dead in a remote place. This behavior was previously thought to be limited to later humans.
Like other early Homo species, Homo naledi exhibits a mosaic of old and modern traits. From the neck down, these early hominins were well-adapted for upright walking. Their feet were virtually indistinguishable from modern human feet and their legs were also long like ours. Homo naledi had relatively small front teeth, but also a small brain, no larger than an average orange. Clearly, the spurt in brain growth in Homo did not occur in this species. The image to the left shows the different morphology of early human skulls.
Watch the news for more exciting updates about this early species of our genus. Paleontologists researching the cave site estimate that there are hundreds — if not thousands — of fossilized bones still remaining in the cave. There are sure to be many more discoveries reported in the news media about this extinct Homo species.
2.5 Summary
- The human species, Homo sapiens, is placed in the primate order of the class of mammals, which are chordates in the animal kingdom.
- Humans share many traits with other primates. They have five digits with nails and opposable thumbs; an excellent sense of vision, including the ability to see in colour and stereoscopic vision; a large brain, high degree of intelligence, and complex behaviors. Like most other primates, we also live in social groups. Many of our primate traits are adaptations to life in the trees.
- Within the primate order, our species is placed in the hominid family, which also includes chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans. All hominids are relatively large, tailless primates, in which males are generally bigger than females.
- The genus Homo first evolved about 2.8 million years ago. Early Homo species were fully bipedal, but had small brains. All are now extinct.
- During the last 800 thousand years, Homo sapiens evolved, with smaller faces, jaws, and front teeth, but much bigger brains than earlier Homo species.
2.5 Review Questions
- Outline how humans are classified. Name their taxa, starting with the kingdom and ending with the species.
- List several primate traits. Explain how they are related to a life in the trees.
-
- What are hominids? Describe how living hominids are classified.
- Discuss species in the genus Homo.
- Relate climatic changes to the evolution of the genus Homo over the last million years.
- Why is it significant that we share 93% to 99% of our DNA sequence with other primates?
- Which species do you think we are more likely to share a greater amount of DNA sequence with — non-primate mammals (i.e. horses) or non-mammalian chordates (i.e. frogs)? Explain your answer.
- What is the relationship between shared DNA and shared traits?
- Compared to other mammals, primates have a relatively small area of their brain dedicated to olfactory processing. What does this tell you about the sense of smell in primates compared to other mammals? Why?
- Why do you think it is interesting that nonhuman primates can use tools?
- Explain why the discovery of Homo naledi was exciting.
2.5 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRzp9O9Qc1o&feature=emb_logo
Helping Hands: Matching Capuchins with Those in Need, from BUToday, 2009.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxgnlSbYLSc&feature=emb_logo
New human ancestor discovered: homo naledi (EXCLUSIVE VIDEO)
by National Geographic, 2015.
Attributions
Figure 2.5.1
Macaca nigra self-portrait on Wikimedia Commons is in the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain). (As the work was created from a non-human animal, it has no human author in whom copyright is vested - See the Wtop.com news article.)
Figure 2.5.2
Classification of the human species, by Christopher Auyeung (based on original image from Peter Halasz on Wikimedia Commons), CK-12 Foundation, is used under a CC BY-NC 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/) license. (Original image in public domain).
Figure 2.5.3
Stone tool use by a capuchin monkey, by Tiago Falótico , is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) license.
Figure 2.5.4
Macaca fascicularis aurea stone tools, by Haslam M, Gumert MD, Biro D, Carvalho S, Malaivijitnond S, Figure 2, PLOS One, 2013, is used under a CC BY 2.5 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/) license.
Figure 2.5.5
Squirrel monkey, on Max Pixel, is used under a CC0 1.0 (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/deed.en) universal public domain dedication license.
Figure 2.5.6
Non-human primate range [map], by Jackhynes, 2008, is in the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 2.5.7
Baby Orangutan 3, by Tony Hisgett, 2012, on Flickr, is used under a CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/) license.
Figure 2.5.8
Homo erectus, by Emőke Dénes, is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) license.
Figure 2.5.9
Comparison of skull features of Homo naledi and other early human species, by Chris Stringer, Natural History Museum, United Kingdom, 2015, is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
References
BUToday. (2009, October 5). Helping hands: matching capuchins with those in need. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vRzp9O9Qc1o&feature=youtu.be
Kelleher, C. (2014, August 22). Monkey ‘selfie’ copyright issue settled [online article]. WTOP.com/News. https://wtop.com/news/2014/08/monkey-selfie-copyright-issue-settled/
National Geographic. (2015, September 5). New human ancestor discovered: homo naledi (EXCLUSIVE VIDEO) | National Geographic. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oxgnlSbYLSc&feature=youtu.be
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Who's Who?
Figure 3.7.1 Identical twins show clearly the importance of genes in making us who we are. Genes would not be possible without nucleic acids.
What Are Nucleic Acids?
Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes DNA and RNA. These molecules are built of small monomers called nucleotides. Many nucleotides bind together to form a chain called a polynucleotide. The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two polynucleotide chains or strands. Thus, DNA is sometimes called double-stranded. The nucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain or strand, so RNA is sometimes called single-stranded.
Structure of Nucleic Acids
Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:
- A sugar molecule (the sugar deoxyribose in DNA and the sugar ribose in RNA)
- A phosphate group
- A nitrogen base
The nitrogen bases in a nucleic acid stick out from the backbone. There are four different nitrogen bases: cytosine, adenine, guanine, and either thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). In DNA, bonds form between bases on the two nucleotide chains and hold the chains together. Each type of base binds with just one other type of base: cytosine always binds with guanine, and adenine always binds with thymine. These pairs of bases are called complementary base pairs.
As you can see in Figure 3.7.2, sugars and phosphate groups form the backbone of a polynucleotide chain. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases hold the two polynucleotide chains together.
The binding of complementary bases causes DNA molecules automatically to take their well-known double helix shape, which is shown in the animation in Figure 3.7.3. A double helix is like a spiral staircase. It forms naturally and is very strong, making the two polynucleotide chains difficult to break apart.
DNA Molecule. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases help form the double helix of a DNA molecule. The letters A, T, G, and C stand for the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The sequence of these four bases in DNA is a code that carries instructions for making proteins. Shown is a representation of how the double helix folds into a chromosome.
Roles of Nucleic Acids
DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of bases in DNA makes up the genetic code. Between “starts” and “stops,” the code carries instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the protein. The information in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells divide, and it is also passed from parents to offspring when organisms reproduce. This is how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
ATP is Energy
There is one type of specialized nucleic acid that exists only as a monomer. It stands apart from the other nucleic acids because it does not code for, or help create, proteins. This molecule is ATP, which stands for adenosine triphosphate. It consists of a sugar, adenosine, and three phosphate groups. It's primary role is as the basic energy currency in the cell. The way ATP works is all based on the phosphates. As shown in Figure 3.7.4, a large amount of energy is stored in the bond between the second and third phosphate group. When this bond is broken, it functions as an exothermic reaction and this energy can be used to power other processes taking place in the cell.
3.7 Summary
- Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes DNA and RNA. These molecules are built of small monomers called nucleotides, which bind together in long chains to form polynucleotides. DNA consists of two polynucleotides, and RNA consists of one polynucleotide.
- Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule, phosphate group, and nitrogen base. Sugars and phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides bind together to form the "backbone" of the polynucleotide. Nitrogen bases jut out to the side of the sugar-phosphate backbone. Bonds between complementary bases hold together the two polynucleotide chains of DNA and cause it to take on its characteristic double helix shape.
- DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA makes up the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins. RNA helps synthesize proteins in cells. The genetic code in DNA is also passed from parents to offspring during reproduction, which explains how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
3.7 Review Questions
- What are nucleic acids?
- How does RNA differ structurally from DNA? Draw a picture of each.
- Describe a nucleotide. Explain how nucleotides bind together to form a polynucleotide.
- What role do nitrogen bases in nucleotides play in the structure and function of DNA?
- What is a function of RNA?
- Using what you learned in this article about nucleic acids, explain why twins look so similar.
-
- What are the nucleotides on the complementary strand of DNA below?
- Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level of organization: DNA, nucleotide, polynucleotide.
- As part of the DNA replication process, the two polynucleotide chains are separated from each other, but each individual chain remains intact. What type of bonds are broken in this process?
- Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are _______________.
- Some diseases and disorders are caused by genes. Explain why these genetic disorders can be passed down from parents to their children.
- Are there any genetic disorders that run in your family?
3.7 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeAL6xThfL8
DNA: The book of you - Joe Hanson, TED-Ed, 2012.
Attributions
Figure 3.7.1
- Twins sitting next to each other by Craig Adderley on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Photograph Of Women Wearing Strip Shirt by Paul Bonafide Eferiano on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Two guys sitting on a beach by Daria Shevtsova on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Children Twins Girls Young Nicaraguan Portrait by skeeze on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/service/license/).
Figure 3.7.2
DNA-diagram by Christine Miller [Christinelmiller] on Wikimedia Commons, is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) license.
Figure 3.7.3
Bdna_cropped [gif] by Spiffistan, derivative work: Jahobr, on Wikimedia Commons, is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 3.7.4
ATP for energy by Christine Miller is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
Reference
TED-Ed. (2012, November 26). DNA: The book of you - Joe Hanson. YouTube, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeAL6xThfL8&feature=youtu.be
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Figure 3.3.1 Carbo-licious!
Carbs Galore
What do all of these foods have in common? All of them consist mainly of large compounds called carbohydrates, often referred to as "carbs." Contrary to popular belief, carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy diet. They are also one of four major classes of biological macromolecules.
Chemical Compounds in Living Things
The compounds found in living things are known as biochemical compounds or biological molecules. Biochemical compounds make up the cells and other structures of organisms. They also carry out life processes. Carbon is the basis of all biochemical compounds, so carbon is essential to life on Earth. Without carbon, life as we know it could not exist.
Carbon is so basic to life because of its ability to form stable bonds with many elements, including itself. This property allows carbon to create a huge variety of very large and complex molecules. In fact, there are nearly 10 million carbon-based compounds in living things!
Most biochemical compounds are very large molecules called polymers. A polymer is built of repeating units of smaller compounds called monomers. Monomers are like the individual beads on a string of beads, and the whole string is the polymer. The individual beads (monomers) can do some jobs on their own, but sometimes you need a larger molecule, so the monomers can be connected to form polymers.
Classes of Biochemical Compounds
Although there are millions of different biochemical compounds in Earth's living things, all biochemical compounds contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some contain only these elements, while others contain additional elements, as well. The vast number of biochemical compounds can be grouped into just four major classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. These compounds contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In living things, carbohydrates provide energy to cells, store energy, and form certain structures (such as the cell walls of plants). The monomer that makes up large carbohydrate compounds is called a monosaccharide. The sugar glucose, represented by the chemical model in Figure 3.3.2, is a monosaccharide. It contains six carbon atoms (C), along with several atoms of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O). Thousands of glucose molecules can join together to form a polysaccharide, such as starch.
Lipids
Lipids include fats and oils. They primarily contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, although some lipids contain additional elements, such as phosphorus. Lipids function in living things to store energy, form cell membranes, and carry messages. Lipids consist of repeating units that join together to form chains called fatty acids. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number (generally between 4 and 28) of carbon atoms.
Proteins
Proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and many other important compounds in living things. They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Functions of proteins are very numerous. They help cells keep their shape, compose muscles, speed up chemical reactions, and carry messages and materials. The monomers that make up large protein compounds are called amino acids. There are 20 different amino acids that combine into long chains (called polypeptides) to form the building blocks of a vast array of proteins in living things.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids include the molecules DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA(ribonucleic acid). They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Their functions in living things are to encode instructions for making proteins, to help make proteins, and to pass instructions between parents and offspring. The monomer that makes up nucleic acids is the nucleotide. All nucleotides are the same, except for a component called a nitrogen base. There are four different nitrogen bases, and each nucleotide contains one of these four bases. The sequence of nitrogen bases in the chains of nucleotides in DNA and RNA makes up the code for protein synthesis, which is called the genetic code. The animation in Figure 3.3.5 represents the very complex structure of DNA, which consists of two chains of nucleotides.
3.3 Summary
- Biochemical compounds are carbon-based compounds found in living things. They make up cells and other structures of organisms and carry out life processes. Most biochemical compounds are large molecules called polymers that consist of many repeating units of smaller molecules, which are called monomers.
- There are millions of biochemical compounds, but all of them fall into four major classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. They provide cells with energy, store energy, and make up organic structures, such as the cell walls of plants.
- Lipids include fats and oils. They store energy, form cell membranes, and carry messages.
- Proteins include enzymes, antibodies, and numerous other important compounds in living things. They have many functions — helping cells keep their shape, making up muscles, speeding up chemical reactions, and carrying messages and materials.
- Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. They encode instructions for making proteins, help make proteins, and pass encoded instructions from parents to offspring.
3.3 Review Questions
- Why is carbon so important to life on Earth?
- What are biochemical compounds?
- Describe the diversity of biochemical compounds and explain how they are classified.
- Identify two types of carbohydrates. What are the main functions of this class of biochemical compounds?
- What roles are played by lipids in living things?
- The enzyme amylase is found in saliva. It helps break down starches in foods into simpler sugar molecules. What type of biochemical compound do you think amylase is?
- Explain how DNA and RNA contain the genetic code.
- What are the three elements present in every class of biochemical compound?
- Classify each of the following terms as a monomer or a polymer:
- Nucleic acid
- Amino acid
- Monosaccharide
- Protein
- Nucleotide
- Polysaccharide
- Match each of the above monomers with its correct polymer and identify which class of biochemical compound is represented by each monomer/polymer pair.
- Is glucose a monomer or a polymer? Explain your answer.
- What is one element contained in proteins and nucleic acids, but not in carbohydrates?
- Describe the relationship between proteins and nucleic acids.
- Why do you think it is important to eat a diet that contains a balance of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats?
- Examine the picture of the meal in Figure 3.3.6. What types of biochemical compounds can you identify?
3.3 Explore More
https://youtu.be/YO244P1e9QM
Biomolecules (updated), by the Amoeba Sisters, 2016.
Attributions
Figure 3.3.1
- Cinnamon buns by adamkontor on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
- Sugar by Bru-nO on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
- Potatoes by HolgersFotografie on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
- Blueberries; oatmeal by iha31 on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
- Bread by pics_pd on Pixnio is used under a public domain certification (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain/).
- Spaghetti by RitaE on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
Figure 3.3.2
jewellery_beads_stones_necklace-1200668 on Pxhere, is used under a CC0 1.0 universal public domain dedication license (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/).
Figure 3.3.3
Glucose; Structure of beta-D-glucopyranose (Haworth projection), by NEUROtiker on Wikimedia Commons, has been released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 3.3.4
Lipid Examples; Butter and Oil, by Bill Branson (photographer), on Wikimedia Commons is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 3.3.5
Protein-rich_Foods, by Smastronardo on Wikimedia Commons, is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0) license.
Figure 3.3.6
Bdna_cropped [gif], by Jahobr on Wikimedia Commons, is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain) (This is a derivative work from Bdna.gif by Spiffistan.)
Figure 3.3.7Dinner by Quốc Trung [@boeing] on Unsplash is used under the Unsplash License (https://unsplash.com/license).
Reference
Amoeba Sisters. (2016, February 11). Biomolecules (updated). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YO244P1e9QM&feature=youtu.be
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Who's Who?
Figure 3.7.1 Identical twins show clearly the importance of genes in making us who we are. Genes would not be possible without nucleic acids.
What Are Nucleic Acids?
Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes DNA and RNA. These molecules are built of small monomers called nucleotides. Many nucleotides bind together to form a chain called a polynucleotide. The nucleic acid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) consists of two polynucleotide chains or strands. Thus, DNA is sometimes called double-stranded. The nucleic acid RNA (ribonucleic acid) consists of just one polynucleotide chain or strand, so RNA is sometimes called single-stranded.
Structure of Nucleic Acids
Each nucleotide consists of three smaller molecules:
- A sugar molecule (the sugar deoxyribose in DNA and the sugar ribose in RNA)
- A phosphate group
- A nitrogen base
The nitrogen bases in a nucleic acid stick out from the backbone. There are four different nitrogen bases: cytosine, adenine, guanine, and either thymine (in DNA) or uracil (in RNA). In DNA, bonds form between bases on the two nucleotide chains and hold the chains together. Each type of base binds with just one other type of base: cytosine always binds with guanine, and adenine always binds with thymine. These pairs of bases are called complementary base pairs.
As you can see in Figure 3.7.2, sugars and phosphate groups form the backbone of a polynucleotide chain. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases hold the two polynucleotide chains together.
The binding of complementary bases causes DNA molecules automatically to take their well-known double helix shape, which is shown in the animation in Figure 3.7.3. A double helix is like a spiral staircase. It forms naturally and is very strong, making the two polynucleotide chains difficult to break apart.
DNA Molecule. Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases help form the double helix of a DNA molecule. The letters A, T, G, and C stand for the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. The sequence of these four bases in DNA is a code that carries instructions for making proteins. Shown is a representation of how the double helix folds into a chromosome.
Roles of Nucleic Acids
DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of bases in DNA makes up the genetic code. Between “starts” and “stops,” the code carries instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the protein. The information in DNA is passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells divide, and it is also passed from parents to offspring when organisms reproduce. This is how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
ATP is Energy
There is one type of specialized nucleic acid that exists only as a monomer. It stands apart from the other nucleic acids because it does not code for, or help create, proteins. This molecule is ATP, which stands for adenosine triphosphate. It consists of a sugar, adenosine, and three phosphate groups. It's primary role is as the basic energy currency in the cell. The way ATP works is all based on the phosphates. As shown in Figure 3.7.4, a large amount of energy is stored in the bond between the second and third phosphate group. When this bond is broken, it functions as an exothermic reaction and this energy can be used to power other processes taking place in the cell.
3.7 Summary
- Nucleic acids are the class of biochemical compounds that includes DNA and RNA. These molecules are built of small monomers called nucleotides, which bind together in long chains to form polynucleotides. DNA consists of two polynucleotides, and RNA consists of one polynucleotide.
- Each nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule, phosphate group, and nitrogen base. Sugars and phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides bind together to form the "backbone" of the polynucleotide. Nitrogen bases jut out to the side of the sugar-phosphate backbone. Bonds between complementary bases hold together the two polynucleotide chains of DNA and cause it to take on its characteristic double helix shape.
- DNA makes up genes, and the sequence of nitrogen bases in DNA makes up the genetic code for the synthesis of proteins. RNA helps synthesize proteins in cells. The genetic code in DNA is also passed from parents to offspring during reproduction, which explains how inherited characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.
3.7 Review Questions
- What are nucleic acids?
- How does RNA differ structurally from DNA? Draw a picture of each.
- Describe a nucleotide. Explain how nucleotides bind together to form a polynucleotide.
- What role do nitrogen bases in nucleotides play in the structure and function of DNA?
- What is a function of RNA?
- Using what you learned in this article about nucleic acids, explain why twins look so similar.
-
- What are the nucleotides on the complementary strand of DNA below?
- Arrange the following in order from the smallest to the largest level of organization: DNA, nucleotide, polynucleotide.
- As part of the DNA replication process, the two polynucleotide chains are separated from each other, but each individual chain remains intact. What type of bonds are broken in this process?
- Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are _______________.
- Some diseases and disorders are caused by genes. Explain why these genetic disorders can be passed down from parents to their children.
- Are there any genetic disorders that run in your family?
3.7 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeAL6xThfL8
DNA: The book of you - Joe Hanson, TED-Ed, 2012.
Attributions
Figure 3.7.1
- Twins sitting next to each other by Craig Adderley on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Photograph Of Women Wearing Strip Shirt by Paul Bonafide Eferiano on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Two guys sitting on a beach by Daria Shevtsova on Pexels is used under the Pexels license (https://www.pexels.com/license/).
- Children Twins Girls Young Nicaraguan Portrait by skeeze on Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/service/license/).
Figure 3.7.2
DNA-diagram by Christine Miller [Christinelmiller] on Wikimedia Commons, is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) license.
Figure 3.7.3
Bdna_cropped [gif] by Spiffistan, derivative work: Jahobr, on Wikimedia Commons, is released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 3.7.4
ATP for energy by Christine Miller is used under a CC BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) license.
Reference
TED-Ed. (2012, November 26). DNA: The book of you - Joe Hanson. YouTube, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aeAL6xThfL8&feature=youtu.be
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Is It Magic?
The harmless-looking bottle in Figure 3.8.1 contains a greenish-yellow, poisonous gas. The gas is chlorine, which is also used as bleach and to keep the water in pools and hot tubs free of germs. Chlorine can kill just about anything. Would you breathe in chlorine gas or drink liquid chlorine? Of course not, but you often eat a compound containing chlorine. You probably eat this chlorine compound just about every day. Can you guess what it is? It's table salt.
Table salt is actually sodium chloride (NaCl), which forms when chlorine and sodium (Na) combine in certain proportions. How does the toxic green chemical chlorine change into the harmless white compound we know as table salt? It isn't magic — it's chemistry, and it happens in a chemical reaction.
What Is a Chemical Reaction?
A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. A substance that starts a chemical reaction is called a reactant, and a substance that forms as a result of a chemical reaction is called a product. During the reaction, the reactants are used up to create the products.
The burning of methane gas, as shown in the picture below, is a chemical reaction. In this reaction, the reactants are methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2), and the products are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). As this example shows, a chemical reaction involves the breaking and forming of chemical bonds, which are forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule. When methane burns, for example, bonds break within the methane and oxygen molecules, and new bonds form in the molecules of carbon dioxide and water.
Chemical Equations
Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations. A chemical equation is a symbolic way of showing what happens during a chemical reaction. The burning of methane, for example, can be represented by the chemical equation:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
The arrow in a chemical equation separates the reactants from the products, and shows the direction in which the reaction proceeds. If the reaction could occur in the opposite direction as well, two arrows pointing in opposite directions would be used. The number 2 in front of O2 and H2O, called the coefficient, shows that two oxygen molecules and two water molecules are involved in the reaction. If just one molecule is involved, no number is placed in front of the chemical symbol. Note the subscript of 2 for the oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) atoms in the oxygen and water molecules, respectively. That tells you that each oxygen molecule is made up of two oxygen atoms. If there is no subscript, then there is a single atom. Thus, one water molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. In order for this chemical reaction to take place, one methane molecule reacts with two oxygen molecules to form one carbon dioxide molecule and two water molecules.
Conservation of Mass
In a chemical reaction, the quantity of each element does not change. There is the same amount of each element in the products as there was in the reactants. Mass is always conserved. According to the law of conservation of mass — which was first demonstrated convincingly by French chemist Antoine Lavoisier in 1785 — mass is neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. Therefore, during a chemical reaction, the total mass of products is equal to the total mass of reactants. The conservation of mass is reflected in a reaction's chemical equation. The same number of atoms of each element appears on each side of the arrow. In the chemical equation above, there are four hydrogen atoms on each side of the arrow. Can you find all four of them on each side of the equation?
Chemical vs. Physical Changes
Many processes that happen all around us on a daily basis involve chemical reactions. Not every change, however, is a chemical change. Some changes are simply physical and do not involve chemical reactions. Physical changes include change in size of pieces and change in state. If you break an eggshell and pour out the egg into a pan, its chemical makeup and properties do not change. This is just a physical change. No chemical reactions have occurred, and no chemical bonds have broken or formed. Other examples of physical changes are cutting paper into smaller pieces and letting an ice cube melt. What if you put the egg in the pan over a hot flame? The egg turns to a rubbery solid and changes colour. The properties of the egg have changed because its chemical makeup has changed. Cooking the egg is a chemical change that involves chemical reactions.
Other common examples of chemical changes include a cake baking, metal rusting, and a candle burning. More practice is below.
Figure 3.8.5 Chemical changes often involve chemical reactions as well.
3.8 Summary
- A chemical reaction is a process that changes some chemical substances into others. A substance that starts a chemical reaction is called a reactant, and a substance that forms during a chemical reaction is called a product. During the chemical reaction, bonds break in reactants and new bonds form in products.
- Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations. According to the law of conservation of mass, mass is always conserved in a chemical reaction, so a chemical equation must be balanced, with the same number of atoms of each type of element in the products as in the reactants.
- Many chemical reactions — such as iron rusting and organic matter rotting — occur all around us each day, but not all changes are chemical processes. Some changes — like ice melting or paper being torn into smaller pieces — are physical processes that do not involve chemical reactions and the formation of new substances.
3.8 Review Questions
- What is a chemical reaction?
- Define the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
- List three examples of common changes that involve chemical reactions.
- Define a chemical bond.
- What is a chemical equation? Give an example.
- What does it mean for a chemical equation to be balanced? Why must a chemical equation be balanced?
- Our cells use glucose (C6H12O6) to obtain energy in a chemical reaction called cellular respiration. In this reaction, six oxygen molecules (O2) react with one glucose molecule. Answer the following questions about this reaction:
- How many oxygen atoms are in one molecule of glucose?
- Write out what the reactant side of this equation would look like.
- In total, how many oxygen atoms are in the reactants? Explain how you calculated your answer.
- In total, how many oxygen atoms are in the products? Is it possible to answer this question without knowing what the products are? Why or why not?
- Answer the following questions about the following equation: CH4+ 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
- Can carbon dioxide (CO2)transform into methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2) in this reaction? Why or why not?
- How many molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced in this reaction?
- Is the evaporation of liquid water into water vapor a chemical reaction? Why or why not?
- Why do bonds break in the reactants during a chemical reaction?
3.8 Explore More
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2S6e11NBwiw&feature=emb_logo
The law of conservation of mass - Todd Ramsey, TED-Ed, 2015.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37pir0ej_SE
Chemical Changes: Crash Course Kids #19.2, by Crash Course Kids, 2015.
Attributions
Figure 3.8.1
Chlorine_gas_in_high_concentration by Larenmclane on Wikimedia Commons, is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en) license.
Figure 3.8.2
Tags: Salt Salt Shaker Spices Kitchen Spice Component; salt-4160306_1280 by katie175 from Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
Figure 3.8.3
Tags: Gas Flame Gas Stove Italy Gas Cook Kitchen by moerschy from Pixabay is used under the Pixabay License (https://pixabay.com/de/service/license/).
Figure 3.8.4
Antoine_lavoisier by unknown on Wikimedia Commons has been adapted by Christine Miller. The orginal work, believed to be from http://www.schuster-ingolstadt.de/Chemie.htm has been released into the public domain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain).
Figure 3.8.5
- Ice cream melting by Aron Visuals on Unsplash is used under the Unsplash License (https://unsplash.com/license).
- Kombucha [photo] by Klara Avsenik on Unsplash is used under the Unsplash License (https://unsplash.com/license).
- Grated cheese by Steve Buissinne on PublicDomainPictures is used under the CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/).
References
Crash Course Kids. (2015, July 16). Chemical changes: Crash Course Kids #19.2. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=37pir0ej_SE
TED-Ed. (2015, February 26 ). The law of conservation of mass - Todd Ramsey. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2S6e11NBwiw&feature=emb_logo
Wikipedia contributors. (2020, June 15). Antoine Lavoisier. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antoine_Lavoisier&oldid=962631283
Created by: CK-12/Adapted by Christine Miller
Case Study: More Than Just Tired
We all get tired sometimes, especially if we have been doing a lot of physical activity, like the athletes pictured in Figure 4.1.1. But for Jasmin (Figure 4.1.2), a 34-year-old former high school track star who is now a recreational runner, her tiredness was going far beyond what she thought should be normal for someone in generally good physical shape.
She was experiencing extreme fatigue after her runs, as well as muscle cramping, spasms, and an unusual sense of heaviness in her legs. At first, she just chalked it up to getting older, but her exhaustion and pain worsened to the point where the former athlete could no longer run for more than a few minutes at a time. She began to experience other unusual symptoms, such as blurry vision and vomiting for no apparent reason.
Concerned, Jasmin went to her doctor, who ran many tests and consulted with several specialists. After several months, she was finally diagnosed with a mitochondrial disease. Jasmin is surprised. She has an 8-year-old niece with a mitochondrial disease, but her niece’s symptoms started when she was very young, and they included seizures and learning disabilities. How can Jasmin have the same disease, but different symptoms? Why didn't she have problems until adulthood, while her niece experienced symptoms at an early age? And what are mitochondria, anyway?
Chapter Overview: The Importance of Cells
As you will learn in this chapter, mitochondria are important structures within our cells. This chapter will describe cells, which are the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms. Specifically, you will learn:
- How cells were discovered, their common structures, and the principles of cell theory.
- The importance of size and shape to the functions of cells.
- The differences between eukaryotic cells (such as those in humans and other animals) and prokaryotic cells (such as bacteria).
- The structures and functions of cell parts, including mitochondria, the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, nucleus, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, vesicles, and vacuoles.
- The processes of passive and active transport to move substances into and out of cells and help maintain homeostasis.
- How organisms obtain the energy needed for life, including how the sugar glucose is broken down to produce ATP through the processes of anaerobic and aerobic cellular respiration.
- The phases of the cell cycle, how cells divide through mitosis, and how cancer can result from unregulated cell division.
As you read this chapter, think about the following questions related to Jasmin’s disease:
- What are mitochondria? What is their structure and function, and where did they come from during evolution?
- Why are fatigue and “exercise intolerance” (such as Jasmin’s extreme exhaustion after running) common symptoms of mitochondrial diseases?
- Why do you think Jasmin has symptoms that affect so many different parts of her body, including her legs, eyes, and digestive system?
- Why do you think mitochondrial diseases can run in families like Jasmin's?
Attributes
Figure 4.1.1
Difficult competition by Massimo Sartirana on Unsplash is used under the Unsplash License (https://unsplash.com/license).
Figure 4.1.2
Exhausted by Kevin Grieve on Unsplash is used under the Unsplash License (https://unsplash.com/license).
![Mitotic Prophase [tiny]](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mitotic_Prophase.svg){kind=link}
