{"id":48,"date":"2023-01-27T21:52:05","date_gmt":"2023-01-28T02:52:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=48"},"modified":"2023-03-26T02:11:41","modified_gmt":"2023-03-26T06:11:41","slug":"chapter-3-socialization-how-we-learn-culture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/chapter\/chapter-3-socialization-how-we-learn-culture\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter 3: Socialization \u2013 How We Learn Culture","rendered":"Chapter 3: Socialization \u2013 How We Learn Culture"},"content":{"raw":"Over the previous two chapters, we learned that sociology is the study of the human-shaped structure and that this structure is comprised of and filled with culture, the human-shaped world. Now our next building block is figuring out how we learn culture. We internalize culture through the lifelong learning process called socialization. Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, values, and behaviors necessary to function as a member of society. It is an ongoing process that begins in infancy and continues throughout an individual's life. Socialization occurs through various means, including interactions with family members, peers, teachers, and other members of the community.\r\n\r\nSocialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new generations of a society don\u2019t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. For U.S. culture to continue, for example, children in the United States must learn about cultural values related to democracy: they have to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use material objects such as voting machines. They may learn these through watching their parents or guardians vote, or, in some schools, by using real machines in student government elections. Of course, some would argue that it\u2019s just as important in U.S. culture for the younger generation to learn the etiquette of eating in a restaurant or the rituals of tailgate parties at football games. In fact, there are many ideas and objects that people in the United States teach children about in hopes of keeping the society\u2019s way of life going through another generation.\r\n\r\nSocialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the means via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into the world around us. In addition, to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material and nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what\u2019s suitable attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what\u2019s considered appropriate to eat for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn language\u2014whether it\u2019s the dominant language or one common in a subculture, whether it\u2019s verbal or through signs\u2014in order to communicate and to think. Without socialization we literally have no self.\r\n\r\n<strong>Nature versus Nurture<\/strong>\r\n\r\nSome experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture\u2014the relationships and caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely in genetics. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on nature.\r\n\r\nOne way researchers attempt to measure the impact of nature is by studying twins. Some studies have followed identical twins who were raised separately. The pairs shared the same genetics but in some cases were socialized in different ways. Instances of this type of situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment.\r\n\r\nFor example, in 1968, twin girls were put up for adoption, separated from each other, and raised in different households. The adoptive parents, and certainly the babies, did not realize the girls were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a scientific study (Flam 2007).\r\n\r\nIn 2003, the two women, then age thirty-five, were reunited. Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror. Not only did they look alike but they also behaved alike, using the same hand gestures and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). Studies like these point to the genetic roots of our temperament and behavior.\r\n\r\nThough genetics and hormones play an important role in human behavior, sociology\u2019s larger concern is the effect society has on human behavior, the \u201cnurture\u201d side of the nature versus nurture debate. What race were the twins? From what social class were their parents? What about gender? Religion? All these factors affected the lives of the twins as much as their genetic makeup and are critical to consider as we look at life through the sociological lens.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Compare primary and secondary socialization.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify the various agents of socialization and explain their influence on the process.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nSocialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How does the process of socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society\u2019s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal and informal social institutions.\r\n\r\nSocial groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.\r\n\r\nFamily\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFamily is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as \u201cfamily,\u201d others as \u201cfriends,\u201d still others as \u201cstrangers\u201d or \u201cteachers\u201d or \u201cneighbors\u201d); and how the world works (what is \u201creal\u201d and what is \u201cimagined\u201d). As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or from your role in helping to raise one, socialization includes teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nKeep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a vacuum. Many social factors affect the way a family raises its children. For example, we can use sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place. Sixty years ago, it would not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden spoon or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered child abuse.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nSociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion Research Center 2008). This may occur because working-class parents have less education and more repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able to follow rules and conform. Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in managerial positions or careers that require creative problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that are beneficial in these positions. This means children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types of jobs their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIn Sweden, for instance, stay-at-home fathers are an accepted part of the social landscape. A government policy provides subsidized time off work\u2014480 days for families with newborns\u2014with the option of the paid leave being shared between mothers and fathers. As one stay-at-home dad says, being home to take care of his baby son \u201cis a real fatherly thing to do. I think that\u2019s very masculine\u201d (Associated Press 2011). Close to 90 percent of Swedish fathers use their paternity leave (about 340,000 dads); on average they take seven weeks per birth (The Economist, 2014). How do U.S. policies\u2014and our society\u2019s expected gender roles\u2014compare? How will Swedish children raised this way be socialized to parental gender norms? How might that be different from parental gender norms in the United States?\r\n\r\nPeer Groups\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nA peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket. As children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence. Additionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents\u2019 first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown that although friendships rank high in adolescents\u2019 priorities, this is balanced by parental influence.\r\n\r\nInstitutional Agents\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThe social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal institutions\u2014like schools, workplaces, and the government\u2014teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about norms and expectations.\r\n\r\nSchool\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMost U.S. children spend about seven hours a day, 180 days a year, in school, which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on their socialization (U.S. Department of Education 2004). Students are not in school only to study math, reading, science, and other subjects\u2014the manifest function of this system. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviors like practicing teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.\r\n\r\nSchool and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly reinforce what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools.\r\n\r\nFor example, in the United States, schools have built a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate students (Bowles and Gintis 1976). When children participate in a relay race or a math contest, they learn there are winners and losers in society. When children are required to work together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations. The hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world. Children learn how to deal with bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day. Schools in different cultures socialize children differently in order to prepare them to function well in those cultures. The latent functions of teamwork and dealing with bureaucracy are features of U.S. culture.\r\n\r\nSchools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and national pride. In the United States, children are taught to say the Pledge of Allegiance. Most districts require classes about U.S. history and geography. As academic understanding of history evolves, textbooks in the United States have been scrutinized and revised to update attitudes toward other cultures as well as perspectives on historical events; thus, children are socialized to a different national or world history than earlier textbooks may have done. For example, information about the mistreatment of African Americans and Native American Indians more accurately reflects those events than in textbooks of the past.\r\n\r\n<strong>The Workplace<\/strong>\r\n\r\nJust as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S. adults at some point invest a significant amount of time at a place of employment. Although socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace, in terms of both material culture (such as how to operate the copy machine) and nonmaterial culture (such as whether it\u2019s okay to speak directly to the boss or how to share the refrigerator). In the chapter introduction, Noel did not fully embrace the culture of their new company. Importantly, the obligation of such socialization is not simply on the worker: Organizational behavior and other business experts place responsibility on companies; organizations must have strong onboarding and socialization programs in order to build satisfaction, productivity, and workplace retention (Cebollero 2019).\r\n\r\nDifferent jobs require different types of socialization. In the past, many people worked a single job until retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at least once a decade. Between the ages of eighteen and forty-six, the average Baby Boomer of the younger set held 11.3 different jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). This means that people must become socialized to, and socialized by, a variety of work environments.\r\n\r\n<strong>Religion<\/strong>\r\n\r\nWhile some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices followed by formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The United States is full of synagogues, temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious communities where people gather to worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to interact with the religion\u2019s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a communion wafer). For some people, important ceremonies related to family structure\u2014like marriage and birth\u2014are connected to religious celebrations. Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society.\r\n\r\n<strong>Government<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAlthough we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an \u201cadult\u201d usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself. And sixty-five years old is the start of \u201cold age\u201d since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.\r\n\r\nEach time we embark on one of these new categories\u2014senior, adult, taxpayer\u2014we must be socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and senior shopping discounts. When U.S. males turn eighteen, they must register with the Selective Service System within thirty days to be entered into a database for possible military service. These government dictates mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category.\r\n\r\n<strong>Mass Media<\/strong>\r\n\r\nMass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts, Foehr, and Rideout 2005). People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture\u2014what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain the concept of resocialization.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIn the process of resocialization, old behaviors that were helpful in a previous role are removed because they are no longer of use. Resocialization is necessary when a person moves to a senior care center, goes to boarding school, or serves a sentence in the prison system. In the new environment, the old rules no longer apply. The process of resocialization is typically more stressful than normal socialization because people have to unlearn behaviors that have become customary to them. While resocialization has a specific meaning, many organizations consider their training or retraining processes to embody elements of resocialization.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThe most common way resocialization occurs is in a total institution where people are isolated from society and are forced to follow someone else\u2019s rules. A ship at sea is a total institution, as are religious convents, prisons, or some cult organizations. They are places cut off from a larger society. The 6.9 million Americans who lived in prisons and penitentiaries at the end of 2012 are also members of this type of institution (U.S. Department of Justice 2012).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMany individuals are resocialized into an institution through a two-part process. First, members entering an institution must leave behind their old identity through what is known as a degradation ceremony. In a degradation ceremony, new members lose the aspects of their old identity and are given new identities. The process is sometimes gentle. To enter a senior care home, an elderly person often must leave a family home and give up many belongings which were part of his or her long-standing identity. Though caretakers guide the elderly compassionately, the process can still be one of loss. In many cults, this process is also gentle and happens in an environment of support and caring.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIn other situations, the degradation ceremony can be more extreme. New prisoners lose freedom, rights (including the right to privacy), and personal belongings. When entering the military, soldiers have their hair cut short. Their old clothes are removed, and they wear matching uniforms. These individuals must give up any markers of their former identity in order to be resocialized into an identity as a \u201csoldier.\u201d\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nAfter new members of an institution are stripped of their old identity, they build a new one that matches the new society. In the military, soldiers go through basic training together, where they learn new rules and bond with one another. They follow structured schedules set by their leaders. Soldiers must keep their areas clean for inspection, learn to march in correct formations, and salute when in the presence of superiors.\r\n\r\nLearning to deal with life after having lived in a total institution requires yet another process of resocialization. In the U.S. military, soldiers learn discipline and a capacity for hard work. They set aside personal goals to achieve a mission, and they take pride in the accomplishments of their units. Many soldiers who leave the military transition these skills into excellent careers. Others have significant challenges upon leaving, uncertain about the outside world and what to do next. The process of resocialization to civilian life is not a simple one.\r\n\r\nOther types of organizations may utilize or extend the concept of resocialization with regard to changing people's behaviors. Corporate trainers (and training researchers) sometimes emphasize the need for trainees to shed their old behaviors and adopt entirely new ones. When the people return to their jobs after training, they may be called to leave their old behaviors behind. Similarly, if an entire team goes for training, they may be called to leave their culture behind (Weinbauer-Heidel 2019). Not all such training would apply the resocialization metaphor, but behavioral or personal-professional areas such as stress management or priority\/project management might borrow from resocialization principles in order to make the training effective.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the ideas of socialization according to Cooley,Mead, Erikson, and Piaget.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the argument of moral development according to Kohlberg.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<strong>Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development<\/strong>\r\n\r\nPsychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856\u20131939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He divided the maturation process into stages, and posited that people\u2019s self-development is closely linked to their early stages of development.\r\n\r\nAccording to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood.\r\n\r\nPsychologist Erik Erikson (1902\u20131994) created a theory of personality development based, in part, on the work of Freud. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud\u2019s focus on psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson\u2019s view of self-development gave credit to more social aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).\r\n\r\nJean Piaget (1896\u20131980) was a psychologist who focused on the role of social interactions in child development. He recognized that the development of self evolved through a negotiation between the world as it exists in one\u2019s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially (Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development.\r\n\r\nPsychologist Harry Harlow (1905\u20131981) is known for studying the role of social relationships in human development by observing the impact of isolation and maternal deprivation on the development of young rhesus monkeys. Harlow found that the monkeys, when subjected to isolation, exhibit disturbed behaviors, including self-harm, and had a difficult time integrating when reconnected with other monkeys. Harlow also introduced isolated monkeys to simulated surrogate mothers, some that were covered in cloth while others were constructed out of wire. Based on observed behaviors, the young monkeys appeared to develop attachment with the cloth mothers and lean on them for emotional support. More than seven decades later, this experiment continues to inform the research of psychologists, sociologists, and those interested in human development.\r\n\r\n<strong>Sociological Theories of Self-Development<\/strong>\r\n\r\nOne of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives was Charles Cooley (1864\u20131929). He asserted that people\u2019s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them\u2014a process termed \u201cthe looking glass self\u201d (Cooley 1902).\r\n\r\nLater, George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931) studied the self, a person\u2019s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of \u201cself,\u201d an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That\u2019s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else's shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the \"other.\"\r\n\r\nHow do we go from being newborns to being humans with \u201cselves?\u201d Mead believed that there is a specific path of development that all people go through. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their caregivers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have. Thus, children might try on a parent\u2019s point of view by acting out \u201cgrownup\u201d behavior, like playing dress-up and acting out the \u201cmom\u201d role, or talking on a toy telephone the way they see adults do.\r\n\r\nDuring the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).\r\n\r\nFinally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others\u2014and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a \u201cself\u201d (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).\r\n\r\n<strong>Kohlberg\u2019s Theory of Moral Development<\/strong>\r\n\r\nMoral development is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn what society considers to be \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad,\u201d which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927\u20131987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.\r\n\r\nIn the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. It isn\u2019t until the teen years that the conventional theory develops, when youngsters become increasingly aware of others\u2019 feelings and take those into consideration when determining what\u2019s \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad.\u201d The final stage, called postconventional, is when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms, such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally correct.\r\n\r\n<strong>Gilligan\u2019s Theory of Moral Development and Gender<\/strong>\r\n\r\nAnother sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936\u2013), recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded differently? Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan\u2019s research suggested that boys and girls do have different understandings of morality. Boys appeared to have a justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, seem to have a care and responsibility perspective; they consider people\u2019s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.\r\n\r\nWhile Gilligan is correct that Kohlberg\u2019s research should have included both male and female subjects, her study has been scientifically discredited due to its small sample size. The results Gilligan noted in this study also have not been replicated by subsequent researchers. The differences Gilligan observed were not an issue of the development of morality, but an issue of socialization. Differences in behavior between males and females is the result of gender socialization that teaches boys and girls societal norms and behaviors expected of them based on their sex (see \u201cWhat a Pretty Little Lady\u201d).\r\n\r\nGilligan also recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was \u201cbetter\u201d: the two norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><strong>Chapter Summary<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nThis chapter looks at how we internalize the human-shaped world through the lifelong process of socialization. The process that teaches humans the norms, values, and other cultural aspects is called socialization. Socialization states that the person we become is the result of our environment. The socialization that occurs during childhood is known as primary socialization. Secondary socialization is the socialization that continues throughout life. Cooley proposed the idea of the \"looking-glass self,\" which states that the self develops through reflection. Mead argues that the self consists of two parts \u2013 the \"I\" and the \"Me\" \u2013 and suggests that the self develops in three stages. Goffman uses the analogies of theater to discuss how people create their social environment using impression management. Piaget has proposed that people go through four stages of cognitive development. Erikson argued that people develop a personality in eight psychosocial stages. Kohlberg suggested that moral reasoning occurs on three specific levels. Agents of socialization are the people and groups who shape our self-concept, beliefs, and behavior. The process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors and abandoning old ones is known as resocialization.\r\n<h2><strong>Major Points of the Chapter<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nAfter reading this chapter, you should be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Explain what socialization is.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare primary and secondary socialization.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Identify the various agents of socialization and explain their influence on the process.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the concept of resocialization.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the ideas of socialization according to Cooley, Mead, Erikson, and Piaget.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the argument of moral development according to Kohlberg.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2><strong>Study Questions<\/strong><\/h2>","rendered":"<p>Over the previous two chapters, we learned that sociology is the study of the human-shaped structure and that this structure is comprised of and filled with culture, the human-shaped world. Now our next building block is figuring out how we learn culture. We internalize culture through the lifelong learning process called socialization. Socialization is the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, values, and behaviors necessary to function as a member of society. It is an ongoing process that begins in infancy and continues throughout an individual&#8217;s life. Socialization occurs through various means, including interactions with family members, peers, teachers, and other members of the community.<\/p>\n<p>Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new generations of a society don\u2019t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever is distinctive about a culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. For U.S. culture to continue, for example, children in the United States must learn about cultural values related to democracy: they have to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use material objects such as voting machines. They may learn these through watching their parents or guardians vote, or, in some schools, by using real machines in student government elections. Of course, some would argue that it\u2019s just as important in U.S. culture for the younger generation to learn the etiquette of eating in a restaurant or the rituals of tailgate parties at football games. In fact, there are many ideas and objects that people in the United States teach children about in hopes of keeping the society\u2019s way of life going through another generation.<\/p>\n<p>Socialization is just as essential to us as individuals. Social interaction provides the means via which we gradually become able to see ourselves through the eyes of others, and how we learn who we are and how we fit into the world around us. In addition, to function successfully in society, we have to learn the basics of both material and nonmaterial culture, everything from how to dress ourselves to what\u2019s suitable attire for a specific occasion; from when we sleep to what we sleep on; and from what\u2019s considered appropriate to eat for dinner to how to use the stove to prepare it. Most importantly, we have to learn language\u2014whether it\u2019s the dominant language or one common in a subculture, whether it\u2019s verbal or through signs\u2014in order to communicate and to think. Without socialization we literally have no self.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Nature versus Nurture<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Some experts assert that who we are is a result of nurture\u2014the relationships and caring that surround us. Others argue that who we are is based entirely in genetics. According to this belief, our temperaments, interests, and talents are set before birth. From this perspective, then, who we are depends on nature.<\/p>\n<p>One way researchers attempt to measure the impact of nature is by studying twins. Some studies have followed identical twins who were raised separately. The pairs shared the same genetics but in some cases were socialized in different ways. Instances of this type of situation are rare, but studying the degree to which identical twins raised apart are the same and different can give researchers insight into the way our temperaments, preferences, and abilities are shaped by our genetic makeup versus our social environment.<\/p>\n<p>For example, in 1968, twin girls were put up for adoption, separated from each other, and raised in different households. The adoptive parents, and certainly the babies, did not realize the girls were one of five pairs of twins who were made subjects of a scientific study (Flam 2007).<\/p>\n<p>In 2003, the two women, then age thirty-five, were reunited. Elyse Schein and Paula Bernstein sat together in awe, feeling like they were looking into a mirror. Not only did they look alike but they also behaved alike, using the same hand gestures and facial expressions (Spratling 2007). Studies like these point to the genetic roots of our temperament and behavior.<\/p>\n<p>Though genetics and hormones play an important role in human behavior, sociology\u2019s larger concern is the effect society has on human behavior, the \u201cnurture\u201d side of the nature versus nurture debate. What race were the twins? From what social class were their parents? What about gender? Religion? All these factors affected the lives of the twins as much as their genetic makeup and are critical to consider as we look at life through the sociological lens.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Compare primary and secondary socialization.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify the various agents of socialization and explain their influence on the process.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. How does the process of socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society\u2019s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal and informal social institutions.<\/p>\n<p>Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.<\/p>\n<p>Family<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as \u201cfamily,\u201d others as \u201cfriends,\u201d still others as \u201cstrangers\u201d or \u201cteachers\u201d or \u201cneighbors\u201d); and how the world works (what is \u201creal\u201d and what is \u201cimagined\u201d). As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or from your role in helping to raise one, socialization includes teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a vacuum. Many social factors affect the way a family raises its children. For example, we can use sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place. Sixty years ago, it would not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden spoon or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered child abuse.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion Research Center 2008). This may occur because working-class parents have less education and more repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able to follow rules and conform. Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in managerial positions or careers that require creative problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that are beneficial in these positions. This means children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types of jobs their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In Sweden, for instance, stay-at-home fathers are an accepted part of the social landscape. A government policy provides subsidized time off work\u2014480 days for families with newborns\u2014with the option of the paid leave being shared between mothers and fathers. As one stay-at-home dad says, being home to take care of his baby son \u201cis a real fatherly thing to do. I think that\u2019s very masculine\u201d (Associated Press 2011). Close to 90 percent of Swedish fathers use their paternity leave (about 340,000 dads); on average they take seven weeks per birth (The Economist, 2014). How do U.S. policies\u2014and our society\u2019s expected gender roles\u2014compare? How will Swedish children raised this way be socialized to parental gender norms? How might that be different from parental gender norms in the United States?<\/p>\n<p>Peer Groups<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket. As children grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence. Additionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents\u2019 first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown that although friendships rank high in adolescents\u2019 priorities, this is balanced by parental influence.<\/p>\n<p>Institutional Agents<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal institutions\u2014like schools, workplaces, and the government\u2014teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about norms and expectations.<\/p>\n<p>School<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Most U.S. children spend about seven hours a day, 180 days a year, in school, which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on their socialization (U.S. Department of Education 2004). Students are not in school only to study math, reading, science, and other subjects\u2014the manifest function of this system. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviors like practicing teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.<\/p>\n<p>School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly reinforce what society expects from children. Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools.<\/p>\n<p>For example, in the United States, schools have built a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate students (Bowles and Gintis 1976). When children participate in a relay race or a math contest, they learn there are winners and losers in society. When children are required to work together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations. The hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world. Children learn how to deal with bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day. Schools in different cultures socialize children differently in order to prepare them to function well in those cultures. The latent functions of teamwork and dealing with bureaucracy are features of U.S. culture.<\/p>\n<p>Schools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and national pride. In the United States, children are taught to say the Pledge of Allegiance. Most districts require classes about U.S. history and geography. As academic understanding of history evolves, textbooks in the United States have been scrutinized and revised to update attitudes toward other cultures as well as perspectives on historical events; thus, children are socialized to a different national or world history than earlier textbooks may have done. For example, information about the mistreatment of African Americans and Native American Indians more accurately reflects those events than in textbooks of the past.<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Workplace<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Just as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S. adults at some point invest a significant amount of time at a place of employment. Although socialized into their culture since birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace, in terms of both material culture (such as how to operate the copy machine) and nonmaterial culture (such as whether it\u2019s okay to speak directly to the boss or how to share the refrigerator). In the chapter introduction, Noel did not fully embrace the culture of their new company. Importantly, the obligation of such socialization is not simply on the worker: Organizational behavior and other business experts place responsibility on companies; organizations must have strong onboarding and socialization programs in order to build satisfaction, productivity, and workplace retention (Cebollero 2019).<\/p>\n<p>Different jobs require different types of socialization. In the past, many people worked a single job until retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at least once a decade. Between the ages of eighteen and forty-six, the average Baby Boomer of the younger set held 11.3 different jobs (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). This means that people must become socialized to, and socialized by, a variety of work environments.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Religion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>While some religions are informal institutions, here we focus on practices followed by formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The United States is full of synagogues, temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious communities where people gather to worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to interact with the religion\u2019s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a communion wafer). For some people, important ceremonies related to family structure\u2014like marriage and birth\u2014are connected to religious celebrations. Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Government<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Although we do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government. To be defined as an \u201cadult\u201d usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself. And sixty-five years old is the start of \u201cold age\u201d since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.<\/p>\n<p>Each time we embark on one of these new categories\u2014senior, adult, taxpayer\u2014we must be socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and senior shopping discounts. When U.S. males turn eighteen, they must register with the Selective Service System within thirty days to be entered into a database for possible military service. These government dictates mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mass Media<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts, Foehr, and Rideout 2005). People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture\u2014what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain the concept of resocialization.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In the process of resocialization, old behaviors that were helpful in a previous role are removed because they are no longer of use. Resocialization is necessary when a person moves to a senior care center, goes to boarding school, or serves a sentence in the prison system. In the new environment, the old rules no longer apply. The process of resocialization is typically more stressful than normal socialization because people have to unlearn behaviors that have become customary to them. While resocialization has a specific meaning, many organizations consider their training or retraining processes to embody elements of resocialization.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>The most common way resocialization occurs is in a total institution where people are isolated from society and are forced to follow someone else\u2019s rules. A ship at sea is a total institution, as are religious convents, prisons, or some cult organizations. They are places cut off from a larger society. The 6.9 million Americans who lived in prisons and penitentiaries at the end of 2012 are also members of this type of institution (U.S. Department of Justice 2012).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Many individuals are resocialized into an institution through a two-part process. First, members entering an institution must leave behind their old identity through what is known as a degradation ceremony. In a degradation ceremony, new members lose the aspects of their old identity and are given new identities. The process is sometimes gentle. To enter a senior care home, an elderly person often must leave a family home and give up many belongings which were part of his or her long-standing identity. Though caretakers guide the elderly compassionately, the process can still be one of loss. In many cults, this process is also gentle and happens in an environment of support and caring.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In other situations, the degradation ceremony can be more extreme. New prisoners lose freedom, rights (including the right to privacy), and personal belongings. When entering the military, soldiers have their hair cut short. Their old clothes are removed, and they wear matching uniforms. These individuals must give up any markers of their former identity in order to be resocialized into an identity as a \u201csoldier.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>After new members of an institution are stripped of their old identity, they build a new one that matches the new society. In the military, soldiers go through basic training together, where they learn new rules and bond with one another. They follow structured schedules set by their leaders. Soldiers must keep their areas clean for inspection, learn to march in correct formations, and salute when in the presence of superiors.<\/p>\n<p>Learning to deal with life after having lived in a total institution requires yet another process of resocialization. In the U.S. military, soldiers learn discipline and a capacity for hard work. They set aside personal goals to achieve a mission, and they take pride in the accomplishments of their units. Many soldiers who leave the military transition these skills into excellent careers. Others have significant challenges upon leaving, uncertain about the outside world and what to do next. The process of resocialization to civilian life is not a simple one.<\/p>\n<p>Other types of organizations may utilize or extend the concept of resocialization with regard to changing people&#8217;s behaviors. Corporate trainers (and training researchers) sometimes emphasize the need for trainees to shed their old behaviors and adopt entirely new ones. When the people return to their jobs after training, they may be called to leave their old behaviors behind. Similarly, if an entire team goes for training, they may be called to leave their culture behind (Weinbauer-Heidel 2019). Not all such training would apply the resocialization metaphor, but behavioral or personal-professional areas such as stress management or priority\/project management might borrow from resocialization principles in order to make the training effective.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the ideas of socialization according to Cooley,Mead, Erikson, and Piaget.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the argument of moral development according to Kohlberg.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856\u20131939) was one of the most influential modern scientists to put forth a theory about how people develop a sense of self. He divided the maturation process into stages, and posited that people\u2019s self-development is closely linked to their early stages of development.<\/p>\n<p>According to Freud, failure to properly engage in or disengage from a specific stage results in emotional and psychological consequences throughout adulthood.<\/p>\n<p>Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902\u20131994) created a theory of personality development based, in part, on the work of Freud. However, Erikson believed the personality continued to change over time and was never truly finished. His theory includes eight stages of development, beginning with birth and ending with death. According to Erikson, people move through these stages throughout their lives. In contrast to Freud\u2019s focus on psychosexual stages and basic human urges, Erikson\u2019s view of self-development gave credit to more social aspects, like the way we negotiate between our own base desires and what is socially accepted (Erikson 1982).<\/p>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) was a psychologist who focused on the role of social interactions in child development. He recognized that the development of self evolved through a negotiation between the world as it exists in one\u2019s mind and the world that exists as it is experienced socially (Piaget 1954). All three of these thinkers have contributed to our modern understanding of self-development.<\/p>\n<p>Psychologist Harry Harlow (1905\u20131981) is known for studying the role of social relationships in human development by observing the impact of isolation and maternal deprivation on the development of young rhesus monkeys. Harlow found that the monkeys, when subjected to isolation, exhibit disturbed behaviors, including self-harm, and had a difficult time integrating when reconnected with other monkeys. Harlow also introduced isolated monkeys to simulated surrogate mothers, some that were covered in cloth while others were constructed out of wire. Based on observed behaviors, the young monkeys appeared to develop attachment with the cloth mothers and lean on them for emotional support. More than seven decades later, this experiment continues to inform the research of psychologists, sociologists, and those interested in human development.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Sociological Theories of Self-Development<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>One of the pioneering contributors to sociological perspectives was Charles Cooley (1864\u20131929). He asserted that people\u2019s self understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them\u2014a process termed \u201cthe looking glass self\u201d (Cooley 1902).<\/p>\n<p>Later, George Herbert Mead (1863\u20131931) studied the self, a person\u2019s distinct identity that is developed through social interaction. In order to engage in this process of \u201cself,\u201d an individual has to be able to view him or herself through the eyes of others. That\u2019s not an ability that we are born with (Mead 1934). Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else&#8217;s shoes and look at the world through their perspective. This assists us in becoming self-aware, as we look at ourselves from the perspective of the &#8220;other.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>How do we go from being newborns to being humans with \u201cselves?\u201d Mead believed that there is a specific path of development that all people go through. During the preparatory stage, children are only capable of imitation: they have no ability to imagine how others see things. They copy the actions of people with whom they regularly interact, such as their caregivers. This is followed by the play stage, during which children begin to take on the role that one other person might have. Thus, children might try on a parent\u2019s point of view by acting out \u201cgrownup\u201d behavior, like playing dress-up and acting out the \u201cmom\u201d role, or talking on a toy telephone the way they see adults do.<\/p>\n<p>During the game stage, children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different people with a variety of purposes. For example, a child at this stage is likely to be aware of the different responsibilities of people in a restaurant who together make for a smooth dining experience (someone seats you, another takes your order, someone else cooks the food, while yet another clears away dirty dishes).<\/p>\n<p>Finally, children develop, understand, and learn the idea of the generalized other, the common behavioral expectations of general society. By this stage of development, an individual is able to imagine how he or she is viewed by one or many others\u2014and thus, from a sociological perspective, to have a \u201cself\u201d (Mead 1934; Mead 1964).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Kohlberg\u2019s Theory of Moral Development<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Moral development is an important part of the socialization process. The term refers to the way people learn what society considers to be \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad,\u201d which is important for a smoothly functioning society. Moral development prevents people from acting on unchecked urges, instead considering what is right for society and good for others. Lawrence Kohlberg (1927\u20131987) was interested in how people learn to decide what is right and what is wrong. To understand this topic, he developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.<\/p>\n<p>In the preconventional stage, young children, who lack a higher level of cognitive ability, experience the world around them only through their senses. It isn\u2019t until the teen years that the conventional theory develops, when youngsters become increasingly aware of others\u2019 feelings and take those into consideration when determining what\u2019s \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cbad.\u201d The final stage, called postconventional, is when people begin to think of morality in abstract terms, such as Americans believing that everyone has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. At this stage, people also recognize that legality and morality do not always match up evenly (Kohlberg 1981). When hundreds of thousands of Egyptians turned out in 2011 to protest government corruption, they were using postconventional morality. They understood that although their government was legal, it was not morally correct.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Gilligan\u2019s Theory of Moral Development and Gender<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Another sociologist, Carol Gilligan (1936\u2013), recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory might show gender bias since his research was only conducted on male subjects. Would females study subjects have responded differently? Would a female social scientist notice different patterns when analyzing the research? To answer the first question, she set out to study differences between how boys and girls developed morality. Gilligan\u2019s research suggested that boys and girls do have different understandings of morality. Boys appeared to have a justice perspective, by placing emphasis on rules and laws. Girls, on the other hand, seem to have a care and responsibility perspective; they consider people\u2019s reasons behind behavior that seems morally wrong.<\/p>\n<p>While Gilligan is correct that Kohlberg\u2019s research should have included both male and female subjects, her study has been scientifically discredited due to its small sample size. The results Gilligan noted in this study also have not been replicated by subsequent researchers. The differences Gilligan observed were not an issue of the development of morality, but an issue of socialization. Differences in behavior between males and females is the result of gender socialization that teaches boys and girls societal norms and behaviors expected of them based on their sex (see \u201cWhat a Pretty Little Lady\u201d).<\/p>\n<p>Gilligan also recognized that Kohlberg\u2019s theory rested on the assumption that the justice perspective was the right, or better, perspective. Gilligan, in contrast, theorized that neither perspective was \u201cbetter\u201d: the two norms of justice served different purposes. Ultimately, she explained that boys are socialized for a work environment where rules make operations run smoothly, while girls are socialized for a home environment where flexibility allows for harmony in caretaking and nurturing (Gilligan 1982; Gilligan 1990).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Chapter Summary<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>This chapter looks at how we internalize the human-shaped world through the lifelong process of socialization. The process that teaches humans the norms, values, and other cultural aspects is called socialization. Socialization states that the person we become is the result of our environment. The socialization that occurs during childhood is known as primary socialization. Secondary socialization is the socialization that continues throughout life. Cooley proposed the idea of the &#8220;looking-glass self,&#8221; which states that the self develops through reflection. Mead argues that the self consists of two parts \u2013 the &#8220;I&#8221; and the &#8220;Me&#8221; \u2013 and suggests that the self develops in three stages. Goffman uses the analogies of theater to discuss how people create their social environment using impression management. Piaget has proposed that people go through four stages of cognitive development. Erikson argued that people develop a personality in eight psychosocial stages. Kohlberg suggested that moral reasoning occurs on three specific levels. Agents of socialization are the people and groups who shape our self-concept, beliefs, and behavior. The process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors and abandoning old ones is known as resocialization.<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Major Points of the Chapter<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>After reading this chapter, you should be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Explain what socialization is.<\/li>\n<li>Compare primary and secondary socialization.<\/li>\n<li>Identify the various agents of socialization and explain their influence on the process.<\/li>\n<li>Explain the concept of resocialization.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the ideas of socialization according to Cooley, Mead, Erikson, and Piaget.<\/li>\n<li>Describe the argument of moral development according to Kohlberg.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2><strong>Study Questions<\/strong><\/h2>\n","protected":false},"author":1881,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-48","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/48","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1881"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/48\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":276,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/48\/revisions\/276"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/48\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=48"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=48"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=48"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/humanshapedstructure\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=48"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}