{"id":1252,"date":"2025-11-26T13:47:38","date_gmt":"2025-11-26T18:47:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/?post_type=chapter&p=1252"},"modified":"2026-03-20T15:54:00","modified_gmt":"2026-03-20T19:54:00","slug":"3-important-chemicals-in-hydrometallurgy-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/chapter\/3-important-chemicals-in-hydrometallurgy-2\/","title":{"raw":"3. Important Chemicals in Hydrometallurgy","rendered":"3. Important Chemicals in Hydrometallurgy"},"content":{"raw":"Hydrometallurgy is about producing metals. However, many of the chemical reagents we use are not based on metals. The hydrometallurgist needs to be familiar with these, and with their typical uses. In this section some of the common, relevant industrial chemicals are listed. In addition, the common cations and anions are also listed. The chemical formulas and names need to be learned, particularly for those especially common in hydrometallurgy.\r\n

Acids<\/h2>\r\n[table id=21 \/]\r\n\r\nFor the purposes of hydrometallurgy acids are molecules or ions that ionize to form protons, H+, in aqueous solution. A fuller treatment of acids and bases is given in Part II of this review. Bases are species that accept protons, i.e. a base has some affinity to chemically combine with H+.\r\n

Bases<\/h2>\r\n[table id=22 \/]\r\n

Oxidants<\/h2>\r\nRedox reactions (electron transfer) are a very important class of chemical reactions. Note: An oxidizing agent is a species which accepts electrons. A reducing agent is one which donates electrons. In the process of electron transfer the oxidant (a reactant) gets reduced, or accepts electrons. The reductant (a reactant) gets oxidized, or donates electrons. It is very important to remember these distinctions.\r\n\r\n[table id=23 \/]\r\n

Reductants<\/h2>\r\n[table id=24 \/]\r\n\r\nThe world is an oxidizing place, at least on the surface. Hence reductants are not commonly available, except where generated in: 1. anoxic (O2<\/sub>-free) environments (coal, natural gas, sour gas (H2<\/sub>S) and elemental sulfur), and 2. through photosynthesis, e.g. cellulose, starch). Consequently, reductants tend to be more expensive.\r\n

Complexing Agents<\/h2>\r\nComplexing agents are molecules or ions that can bond with metals (atoms or ions). One ore more of the complexants may be bound to the metal. The chemical species formed is thought of as a complex of discrete ligands (the complexing agents) bound to a central metal. More on this later in this review.\r\n\r\n[table id=25 \/]\r\n\r\nNote:<\/strong>\u00a0cations in salts are typically not involved in the complexes, other than as counterions.\r\n

Precipitating Agents<\/h2>\r\nMany anions form quite insoluble compounds with many cations. Precipitation can be used to recover a metal ion (wanted or unwanted) from aqueous solutions.\r\n\r\n[table id=60 \/]\r\n

Other Organic Chemicals<\/h2>\r\n[table id=26 \/]\r\n\r\nNumerous organic chemicals and mixtures are used as process additives. Organic reagents will be described and discussed as needed.\r\n

Common Simple Anions<\/h2>\r\nThe common simple anions are listed below. Note: Some O2-<\/sup> does not exist in aqueous solution! It occurs in many solid metal oxides (e.g. CaO), but O2-<\/sup> itself is such a strong base that it reacts completely with water:\r\n\r\n\\[\\ce{O^2- + H_2O -> 2OH^-}\\tag {127}\\]\r\nThe prefix \u201cbi\u201d indicates that a proton is added to an anion, e.g. S2-<\/sup>\u00a0is sulfide; HS\u2013<\/sup>\u00a0is bisulfide.\r\n\r\n[table id=35 \/]\r\n

Common Simple Cations<\/h2>\r\nThe common simple cations are listed below. In water they form aquo complexes (water as the ligand). It is important to be able to write the formulas and recognize the names. More on coordination chemistry later in this review.\r\n
    \r\n \t
  • H+<\/sup> (or H3<\/sub>O+<\/sup>; the proton is strongly hydrated in water)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • NH4<\/sub>+<\/sup> (ammonium)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Li+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Na+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • K+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Rb+<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cs+<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Mg+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Ca+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Sr+2<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Ba+2<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cr+3<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Mn+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Fe+2<\/sup> (ferrous)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Fe+3<\/sup> (ferric)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Co+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Ni+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cu+<\/sup> (cuprous, unstable in water)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cu+2<\/sup> (cupric)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Ag+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Zn+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Cd+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Hg+2<\/sup> (mercuric)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Hg2<\/sub>+2<\/sup> (mercurous)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Al+3<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • Tl+<\/sup> (thallous)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Tl+3<\/sup> (thallic)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • Pb+2<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • VO+2<\/sup> (vanadyl)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • VO2<\/sub>+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • UO2<\/sub>+2<\/sup> (unranyl)<\/li>\r\n \t
  • BiO+<\/sup><\/li>\r\n \t
  • La+3<\/sup> (also many other lanthanide +3 cations)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nCations and anions of course occur in combination with each other as electrically neutral salts, with varying degrees of solubility in water and other solvents.\r\n\r\n*quiz*<\/span>","rendered":"

    Hydrometallurgy is about producing metals. However, many of the chemical reagents we use are not based on metals. The hydrometallurgist needs to be familiar with these, and with their typical uses. In this section some of the common, relevant industrial chemicals are listed. In addition, the common cations and anions are also listed. The chemical formulas and names need to be learned, particularly for those especially common in hydrometallurgy.<\/p>\n

    Acids<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.1 - Acids<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    H2<\/sub>SO4<\/sub><\/td>\nSulfuric acid<\/td>\nMost common acid: leaching, electrowinning.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HCl<\/td>\nHydrochloric acid<\/td>\nLess commonly used: leaching, electrowinning (e.g. Ni).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HF<\/td>\nHydrofluoric acid<\/td>\nSome specific applications: e.g. lead processing.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HNO3<\/sub><\/td>\nNitric acid<\/td>\nMinor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    H3<\/sub>PO4<\/sub><\/td>\nPhosphoric acid<\/td>\nMinor<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    For the purposes of hydrometallurgy acids are molecules or ions that ionize to form protons, H+, in aqueous solution. A fuller treatment of acids and bases is given in Part II of this review. Bases are species that accept protons, i.e. a base has some affinity to chemically combine with H+.<\/p>\n

    Bases<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.2 - Bases<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    CaO<\/td>\nLime\/hydrated lime<\/td>\nCrucial: moderate strength\/cheapest base<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Ca(OH)2<\/sub><\/td>\nSlaked lime<\/td>\nMost commonly used base.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CaCO3<\/sub><\/td>\nCalcium carbonate<\/td>\nWeak, but cheap base. Natural mineral.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaOH<\/td>\nSodium hydroxide<\/td>\nImportant: strong base, but expensive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Na2<\/sub>CO3<\/sub><\/td>\nSodium carbonate<\/td>\nWeaker base than NaOH; moderately priced<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NH3<\/sub><\/td>\nAmmonia<\/td>\nExpensive, weak base. More important as a complexing agent (Ni+2<\/sup> and Co+2<\/sup>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Oxidants<\/h2>\n

    Redox reactions (electron transfer) are a very important class of chemical reactions. Note: An oxidizing agent is a species which accepts electrons. A reducing agent is one which donates electrons. In the process of electron transfer the oxidant (a reactant) gets reduced, or accepts electrons. The reductant (a reactant) gets oxidized, or donates electrons. It is very important to remember these distinctions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.3 - Oxidates<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    O2<\/sub><\/td>\nOxygen<\/td>\nCrucial for leaching; used as air (21% O2<\/sub>) or as purified O2<\/sub> (moderately expensive).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Cl2<\/sub><\/td>\nChlorine<\/td>\nStrong\/expensive: Ni-sulfide leaching.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Fe2<\/sub>(SO4<\/sub>)3<\/sub> \u2022 nH2<\/sub>O<\/td>\nFerric sulphate<\/td>\nCrucial for leaching; may be generated in (n \u2248 5) situ (e.g. by oxidation of FeS2<\/sub>).<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    FeCl3<\/sub> \u2022 6H2<\/sub>O<\/td>\nFerric chloride<\/td>\nPossible use in chloride leaching.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    MnO2<\/sub><\/td>\nManganese dioxide<\/td>\nStrong, insoluble oxidant: uranium leaching. Natural mineral.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaOCl<\/td>\nSodium hypochlorite<\/td>\n\u201cBleach.\u201d Strong\/expensive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub><\/td>\nHydrogen peroxide<\/td>\nStrong\/Expensive: not commonly used.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CuCl2<\/sub> \u2022 2H2<\/sub>O<\/td>\nCupric chloride<\/td>\nComparable oxidant to FeCl3<\/sub> in only concentrated chloride solution.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Reductants<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.4 - Reductants<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    Zn<\/td>\nZinc metal<\/td>\nModerately strong: cementation (precipitation) to purify solutions and recover (precipitate) metal.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Fe<\/td>\nIron metal (scrap)<\/td>\nModerate: cementation; less common now.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    SO2<\/sub><\/td>\nSulphur dioxide<\/td>\nSome less common uses. Readily available by burning sulphur<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Na2<\/sub>SO3<\/sub><\/td>\nSodium sulphite<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    H2<\/sub><\/td>\nHydrogen gas<\/td>\nImportant\/expensive: for making metal powders, especially Ni, Co.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Cu<\/td>\nCopper metal<\/td>\nModerately expensive: some cementation uses; some uses as a simple reductant.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    The world is an oxidizing place, at least on the surface. Hence reductants are not commonly available, except where generated in: 1. anoxic (O2<\/sub>-free) environments (coal, natural gas, sour gas (H2<\/sub>S) and elemental sulfur), and 2. through photosynthesis, e.g. cellulose, starch). Consequently, reductants tend to be more expensive.<\/p>\n

    Complexing Agents<\/h2>\n

    Complexing agents are molecules or ions that can bond with metals (atoms or ions). One ore more of the complexants may be bound to the metal. The chemical species formed is thought of as a complex of discrete ligands (the complexing agents) bound to a central metal. More on this later in this review.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.5 - Complexing Agents<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    Compound (ligand, if different):<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaCN (CN-)<\/td>\nSodium cyanide<\/td>\nCrucial for gold. Expensive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaCl (Cl-)<\/td>\nSodium chloride<\/td>\nChloride leaching. Less common.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    MgCl2<\/sub> (Cl-)<\/td>\nMagnesium chloride<\/td>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NH3<\/sub><\/td>\nAmmonia<\/td>\nLeaching, especially for Ni, Co. Moderately expensive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    M2<\/sub>S2<\/sub>O33<\/sub>(S2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>2-<\/sup>); M = Na+<\/sup>, NH2<\/sub>+<\/sup><\/td>\nAmmonium or sodium thiosulfate<\/td>\nPossible alternative for gold\/silver leaching?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CO<\/td>\nCarbon monoxide<\/td>\nUsed in separation of nickel as Ni(CO)4<\/sub>. Extremely toxic!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Organics<\/td>\nMany<\/td>\nAs specific extractants for metal ions, into organic solutions. Solution purification. Expensive.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Note:<\/strong>\u00a0cations in salts are typically not involved in the complexes, other than as counterions.<\/p>\n

    Precipitating Agents<\/h2>\n

    Many anions form quite insoluble compounds with many cations. Precipitation can be used to recover a metal ion (wanted or unwanted) from aqueous solutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.6 - Precipitating Agents<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    H2<\/sub>S<\/td>\nHydrogen Sulfide<\/td>\nImportant: many metal sulfides are very insoluble. Moderately costly. <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaSH<\/td>\nSodium bisulfide<\/td>\nAs per H2S. <\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Na2<\/sub>CO3<\/sub><\/td>\nSodium carbonate<\/td>\nMany carbonates are quite insoluble.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NaOH<\/td>\nSodium hydroxide<\/td>\nExpensive. Many oxides\/hydroxides are quite insoluble.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Other Organic Chemicals<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.7 - Other Organic Compounds<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\nDescription<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    Hydrocarbons<\/td>\ne.g. Kerosene<\/td>\nCrucial: solvents for solvent extraction.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Activated carbon<\/td>\nC<\/td>\nCrucial: adsorbent for gold cyanide complex. Used in gold extraction.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Numerous organic chemicals and mixtures are used as process additives. Organic reagents will be described and discussed as needed.<\/p>\n

    Common Simple Anions<\/h2>\n

    The common simple anions are listed below. Note: Some O2-<\/sup> does not exist in aqueous solution! It occurs in many solid metal oxides (e.g. CaO), but O2-<\/sup> itself is such a strong base that it reacts completely with water:<\/p>\n

    \\[\\ce{O^2- + H_2O -> 2OH^-}\\tag {127}\\]
    \nThe prefix \u201cbi\u201d indicates that a proton is added to an anion, e.g. S2-<\/sup>\u00a0is sulfide; HS\u2013<\/sup>\u00a0is bisulfide.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
    Table 3.8 - Common Simple Anions<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n
    Chemical Formula<\/th>\nCommon Name<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
    O2-<\/sup><\/td>\noxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    S2-<\/sup><\/td>\nsulphide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Se2-<\/sup><\/td>\nselenide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    F-<\/sup><\/td>\nfluoride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Cl-<\/sup><\/td>\nchloride<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Br-<\/sup><\/td>\nbromide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    I-<\/sup><\/td>\niodide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    OH-<\/sup><\/td>\nhydroxide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HS-<\/sup><\/td>\nbisulphide \/ hydrosulphide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    SO4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nsulphate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HSO4<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nbisulfate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    SO3<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nsulfite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HSO3<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nbisulfite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    S2<\/sub>O3<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nthiosulfate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Sx2-<\/sup><\/td>\npolysulfides (x = 2-9)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    S2<\/sub>O8<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nperoxodisulfate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HSO5<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nhydrogen peroxosulfate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CN-<\/sup><\/td>\ncyanide<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    SCN-<\/sup><\/td>\nthiocyanate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    OCN-<\/sup><\/td>\ncyanate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CO3<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\ncarbonate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HCO3<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nbicarbonate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NO3<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nnitrate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    NO2<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nnitrite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    PO4<\/sub>3-<\/sup><\/td>\nphosphate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    HPO4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nhydrogen phosphate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    H2<\/sub>PO4<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\ndihydrogen phosphate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    AsO4<\/sub>3-<\/sup><\/td>\narsenate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    MnO4<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\npermanganate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CrO4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nchromate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    Cr2<\/sub>O7<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\ndichromate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    MoO4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\nmolybdate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    WO4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\ntungstate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    VO4<\/sub>3-<\/sup><\/td>\nvanadate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    ClO4<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nperchlorate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    ClO3<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nchlorate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    OCl-<\/sup><\/td>\nhypochlorite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    BrO3<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nbromate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    IO3<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\niodate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    CH3<\/sub>CO2<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nacetate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    C2<\/sub>O4<\/sub>2-<\/sup><\/td>\noxalate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    BF4<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\ntetrafluoroborate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
    PF6<\/sub>-<\/sup><\/td>\nhexafluorophosphate<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

    <\/p>\n

    Common Simple Cations<\/h2>\n

    The common simple cations are listed below. In water they form aquo complexes (water as the ligand). It is important to be able to write the formulas and recognize the names. More on coordination chemistry later in this review.<\/p>\n

      \n
    • H+<\/sup> (or H3<\/sub>O+<\/sup>; the proton is strongly hydrated in water)<\/li>\n
    • NH4<\/sub>+<\/sup> (ammonium)<\/li>\n
    • Li+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Na+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • K+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Rb+<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\n
    • Cs+<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\n
    • Mg+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Ca+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Sr+2<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\n
    • Ba+2<\/sup> (low natural abundance)<\/li>\n
    • Cr+3<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Mn+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Fe+2<\/sup> (ferrous)<\/li>\n
    • Fe+3<\/sup> (ferric)<\/li>\n
    • Co+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Ni+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Cu+<\/sup> (cuprous, unstable in water)<\/li>\n
    • Cu+2<\/sup> (cupric)<\/li>\n
    • Ag+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Zn+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Cd+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Hg+2<\/sup> (mercuric)<\/li>\n
    • Hg2<\/sub>+2<\/sup> (mercurous)<\/li>\n
    • Al+3<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • Tl+<\/sup> (thallous)<\/li>\n
    • Tl+3<\/sup> (thallic)<\/li>\n
    • Pb+2<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • VO+2<\/sup> (vanadyl)<\/li>\n
    • VO2<\/sub>+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • UO2<\/sub>+2<\/sup> (unranyl)<\/li>\n
    • BiO+<\/sup><\/li>\n
    • La+3<\/sup> (also many other lanthanide +3 cations)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

      Cations and anions of course occur in combination with each other as electrically neutral salts, with varying degrees of solubility in water and other solvents.<\/p>\n

      *quiz*<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1076,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1252","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":1126,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1252","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1076"}],"version-history":[{"count":25,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1252\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1417,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1252\/revisions\/1417"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1126"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1252\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1252"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1252"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1252"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/hydrometallurgy\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1252"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}