2 Connecting Indigenous Knowledges to Academic Writing
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the approach and structure of this text in connecting Indigenous Knowledges to academic writing;
2. Begin to profile/ identify different audiences, purposes, genres, and contexts for writing;
3. Consider the conventions of academic writing and how to approach working with Indigenous Knowledges in academic contexts.
Introduction
This chapter draws on the idea of discourse communities as used in writing studies. Discourse communities consider writing and communication as working to fulfill a community’s needs and expectations. Academic communities have needs and expectations which include, for example, evidence or support for information, citations so that information can be verified, lengthy and detailed writing for specialist audiences, often technical terminology and assumed background knowledge, formal and supposedly “objective” tone (although many question whether objectivity is ever possible), and agreed upon structures so that an academic reader can easily find key pieces of information. There are other, discipline based, needs and expectations as well (see chapter 8). Indigenous communities also have needs and expectations. These may overlap and intersect with academic expectations – for instance both communities maintain careful records of where information comes from – but are also different in important ways – for instance Indigenous communities often privilege oral over written modes. Before proceeding further in this chapter, take time to reflect on your community’s needs and expectations for communicating. What are they? How do you think (although you may not be fully sure yet) they might intersect with and diverge from academic needs and expectations?
Audience, Purpose, Genre and Context
Many approaches to writing begin with considerations of audience (who are you writing for?), purpose (why are you writing?), genre (what and how are you writing?), and context (when and where are you writing?) These elements will inform your decisions throughout the writing process.
In this textbook, we encourage you to think about two, not necessarily separate, sets of audiences, purposes, genres, and contexts: the Syilx and the academic. Both communities have long-held ways of communicating, and this chapter along with much of the textbook encourages you to think about the norms and conventions of each and begin reframing and challenging academic assumptions with Syilx knowledges and methodologies. It is becoming increasingly clear to writing studies researchers that, despite claims to objectivity, academic language and practices contain colonial assumptions that need reconsideration.
Audience and genre
To begin to understand who you are writing for, consider profiling your audiences and their genre expectations:
- Who are you writing for? How much information do they already have? What are their demographic and cultural backgrounds?
- What are their likely expectations? What do they need to know? What might be their concerns?
- What kinds of texts do your audiences probably engage with most often and what are those texts like? Would they be oral or written, for experts or non-experts, detailed or general, formal or casual?
Purpose and context
Continue by considering the purposes and contexts for your writing:
- Why are you writing and why do you think audiences will be reading your work? Is it to inform or teach, persuade, entertain, or some combination of those reasons?
- In what context will your work be read or listened to? Will it be in community or during individual study and contemplation? Is it intended to be read thoroughly or skimmed for key ideas? What media will your work be found in?
Answering these questions will help you fulfill your audiences’ expectations and begin your writing process more effectively.
Writing Processes and Structure
The following subsections elaborate on the observations you likely came to in considering audience, genre, purpose and context. For example, writers often think about genre in terms of structure while the context for writing may be entwined with writing process. In this chapter, we explain the conventional academic approaches to structure, process, rhetoric, and language. However, throughout this textbook we invite you to reframe those conventions with Indigenous knowledges and begin the process of decolonizing academic writing. To do that work, though, it is important to know what academic conventions are and that is what the rest of this chapter explains.
Stages in the writing process:
Prewriting can take a number of forms including brainstorming, concept mapping, heuristics, or exploratory research or writing. No one approach works for everyone, so try them out to see what is helpful to you.
Brainstorming is something you have likely done before – it simply means listing everything that comes to mind about your topic, often within a limited time period.
Concept mapping is a more visual form of brainstorming. Write your topic in the middle of your screen or paper and circle it, then draw balloons with other ideas, connecting them to your topic with lines in ways that make sense to you (like a spider web).
Heuristics means to answer who, what, where, when, why, and how in relation to your topic. This can help narrow and focus your ideas.
Exploratory research is often informal (you can use Google!) and about gaining a general understanding of your topic. Exploratory writing is similarly informal and about writing your thoughts and plans for your project down, like a journal entry.
Researching or analysis is the next stage and involves gathering information through secondary data, existing studies, or primary research (doing a study or experiment). Consulting with your community or drawing on the fund of knowledge in a captikwł are also forms of research. All of these approaches involve analysis in order to understand and interpret what the information means. We discuss analysis further below.
Organizing and drafting is typically when writers identify a structure for their ideas (see below for essay structure) and write a first draft. For most writers, the first draft is a rough version that will be polished as they consolidate their work.
Revising and editing is for many the most important stage in writing. This is when you “re-view” your work to see if it does what you want it to, as well as edit to ensure you are communicating effectively to your audience.
These 4 stages in the writing process are often represented as linear in academic writing textbooks, but they are in practice repetitive or circular as writers often go back to researching throughout their process or revise on an ongoing basis. Throughout this book, we encourage you to develop your own writing process inspired by Syilx methodologies and to think about communication as circular.
Essay structure
Conventional academic structure typically looks like this:
In this (usually) opening paragraph, academic writers identify their topic and provide some context or explanation, describe what readers likely know and don’t know about the topic (often called the “state of knowledge”), and then state the argument (often called the thesis) or hypothesis (in scientific studies, what they think may happen). The thesis or hypothesis usually follows from the state of knowledge, either filling in what is not known or saying something new about previous knowledge.
Background or “literature review”
In this section, which can be multiple paragraphs depending on the length of paper and topic, writers typically explain any background information, offer definitions as needed, and elaborate on the research that has already been done in relation to the topic.
Methods, results and discussion OR thematic subsections
For papers involving an experiment or study, writers next describe the methods used (how they conducted the study), the results they found, and then discuss how to interpret those results and how the results compare to previous studies. For papers that are based solely on your interpretation of existing research, the body of the paper is organized around key themes or ideas in your topic and argument. An outline or discussion with your instructor can help you decide how best to organize the information in this kind of paper. Depending on the classes you are taking, you may use one of these formats more than the other.
An academic conclusion typically restates the main argument or ideas of the paper, then explains the significance and/ or future actions readers could take based on the essay.
Finally, it is important for credibility, for integrity, and for future reading to document or provide a list of references for all the sources used in an academic paper. Along with references to sources in the body of the paper, end documentation helps writers acknowledge the community that contributed to the writing they have done. Chapter 4 of this resource explains citation in more detail.
While the essay has been privileged as a communication genre within academia, it is not the only format for communicating knowledge. In fact, in recent years, multimodal and oral communication modes are becoming more common in academia. In this resource we encourage you to develop modes and structures that better communicate Syilx knowledges and world views.
Analysis and Rhetoric
As with other aspects of communication, academics have agreed upon ways to develop, interpret, and understand information. These analytic approaches can include:
Description involves observing and explaining all the details of a topic. This can be visual, encouraging viewers to observe images/ composition/ lighting/ colour/ size and scale, or it can be textual, encouraging readers and listeners to take note of subject matter/ language choices/ formatting or structure.
Classification places a topic in a larger category and division identifies the parts of the topic relevant to that category. For example, a group of trees might be classified as a forest and divided into pine, fir and black cottonwood.
Definition explains what something is and what it is not. Academic writers might also define by explaining how something works, the history of the concept, and even the different contexts or situations in which it is used or applied.
Looking for similarities between concepts (comparison) and for differences (contrast) can help writers understand a topic.
Academic writers often use examples to support their ideas and to help readers better understand what they are saying.
Analysis is not always static, but can involve processes such as cause and effect where writers look into why something may have happened. There can of course be many causes and many effects in any situation.
Analysis generates information and support for an academic essay, often in conjunction with qualitative (inquiry and text based) or quantitative (observational and numerical) methods. Basically, analysis is what, in addition to research information, academics provide as content in the body of their work.
As also noted in Chapter 6 on language, these patterns can be extractive and are not the only ways to develop ideas. For instance, in non-academic contexts previous experiences and received knowledge are often given considerable weight in understanding a topic. Take some time now and as you work through this resource to consider what thinking patterns are used in your community. How do people explain an idea? What kinds of knowledge do they draw on and prioritize?
Rhetoric is how a writer or speaker may seek to appeal to or persuade their audience. In some academic contexts, it is presented as argumentation, while in others it is presented as negotiation. In many communities, rhetoric can be a tool for activism. Chapter 7 explains how Indigenous communities have used rhetoric to advocate for their rights.
Many academic communication genres are based on a rhetorical premise of arguing a thesis or proving/ disproving a hypothesis. In these contexts, a paper, report, or presentation develops an arguable claim and then proves or disproves it. Claims often revolve around issues of definition (what definitions apply to a topic?), causation (what causes an event or situation?), evaluation (is something positive or negative?), or recommendation (what course of action should be followed?).
Here are some examples and discussions of arguable claims or theses used in academic contexts:
Statement 1 works well as a thesis for a conventional academic paper because it is arguable (not everyone might agree that there is misrepresentation) and it is specific (it defines what kind of media and a precise issue and location). It could, however, elaborate further on how the news media has misrepresented this issue.
Statement 2 is a “large statement” thesis which works well in identifying an argument and its applications. It includes some specificity in naming a concept and location, but a large statement thesis may not be as detailed as other theses. Some professors prefer this approach to the list format (see below) as less formulaic.
3. Learning oral history, balance, reciprocity, and respect are concepts necessary for sustainability in the Okanagan and should guide our development policies going forward.
Statement 3 uses similar ideas to statement 2 but is written as a “list format” thesis. This format can be helpful to writers in specifying their key ideas, but some professors find it too predictable and prefer the large statement. (It is always good to check with your professor about their preferences.) As with statement two, statement 3 takes a clear position and precisely explains the issue and context.
- (Version 1) Siwɬkʷ (water) is a key concern for sustainability.
As suggested in relation to statement 1, theses can be revised and changed as you work on a piece of writing. Most often the first draft of a thesis is not the final draft; instead, writers work on clarifying the argument and specifying the important terms and ideas over several drafts. Statement 4 still needs some work – it has a good topic and the start of an argument, but it will be hard to write a paper on such a large concept. To make it more specific, the writer could explore what kind of water and where, why water is so vital, and even how sustainability could be improved. Here is a second draft that does some of that:
Version 2 identifies the location and context, as well as explaining the argument based on teachings in Syilx communities. You may see ways to refine further or polish the language, but version 2 will be easier to write on since it explains the argument and the specific context.
If you develop an arguable claim as in these examples, then there will always be other perspectives on the topic. Recognizing and responding to other views is termed a “rebuttal.” In some academic contexts, the rebuttal is used to refute or contradict other points of view by explaining why they are incorrect. In other contexts it can be incorporated into your argument. For instance, recognizing that the news media may be representing the concerns of some groups, but not those of other groups would be important. For most writers, being able to consider other perspectives and agree, disagree or respond to those ideas makes their own reasoning and ultimately their claim clearer. In Chapter 7, we invite you to consider how the process of En’owkin considers and responds to multiple perspectives and how it compares and differs from academic approaches.
In thinking about persuasion or rhetoric, you may also find the following rhetorical concepts useful:
Ethos is the appeal to credibility. Ethos represents the speaker or writer as knowledgeable and reasonable. One of the most common ethos appeals used throughout academic writing is when academics qualify their claims, using words like “may” or “could” or “perhaps.” This makes them more reasonable and credible, since new research findings could always disprove their work.
Logos is the appeal to logic. Logos most often appears in the expectation that academic claims will be supported by evidence and analysis. For example, academic paragraphs typically include examples and data to explain most concepts. Logic is also identified as reasoning, meaning that if one statement is true then a second, related statement will be true. This idea of logic, however, can and has been used in culturally imperialist ways; Western epistemologies have often been deemed logical, for instance, while other knowledge systems have not. We encourage you to think carefully about the concept of logos and how you wish to use it in academic writing. Is it a concept that you feel is relevant for your work?
Pathos is the appeal to emotion. Pathos appeals seek to draw on readers’ feelings to persuade. For example, showing the impacts on a reader’s family might encourage them to agree with a claim. Pathos can involve a range of emotions from fear, to anger, to enjoyment, to desire. It is not used as frequently in academic writing as ethos and logos, though, as academic writing often represents itself as objective and based on logos. Particularly in areas of the sciences and social sciences, academic ethos or credibility includes claims of objectivity. Consider, though, whether this is really possible. Do you think communication is ever fully neutral or objective?
Kairos is the timeliness or urgency of an argument. It is not technically an appeal in itself but when and how persuasive techniques are used. An example would be linking research to a recent event or, perhaps most common, the “call to action” often found at the end of a research paper. In the call to action, a writer explains what should be done next to address the topic.
Language and Style
Another facet of audience, purpose, genre and context is the language writers use to express their ideas. Language is integral to all cultures, including scholarly and Syilx cultures. In Chapter 6 below, we explore ways in which “Red English” and language revitalization can be used in your writing to shift existing practices. Before beginning that work, though, here are some of the ways in which academics currently use language.
Terminology
Academic style has often been described as specialist and formal. It is designed to speak to researchers who have studied a subject for years and who often have one or more graduate degrees. For these reasons, conventional academic writing typically avoids slang and conversational language in favour of technical and formal terminology that is specific and less likely to be misunderstood. For example, most academic papers include few abbreviations, writing out “do not” rather than “don’t” or “I will” rather than “I’ll” (more on pronoun choice below). Similarly, academics might choose a scholarly term like “pedagogy” (meaning how one designs and delivers a course) rather than “teaching style” to be more precise.
Pronouns
Pronouns, as you are likely aware, identify positionality. They are often used formally in academic writing to create a sense of objectivity, but also carry rhetorical and political implications. Some academics prefer third person pronouns like “he,” “she,” or “they” as a means to sound more objective. In academic English the singular “they” has also been recently adopted as a recognition of non-binary gender positionalities. In most disciplines, but particularly the humanities, researchers use the first person “I” to describe research actions. Academic writers rarely use “you” as it can be presumptive (assuming a reader responds in the same way as the writer does) and is considered less formal. As you may be aware, Syilx epistemologies approach these issues, and consequently pronoun use, quite differently. We encourage you to think about appropriate pronoun usage for your own writing.
Qualifiers
Qualifiers, meaning words that indicate uncertainty such as “may” or “probably,” are widely used in academic writing. This is because research is an ongoing process so that new findings could always supersede existing knowledge. Writers are also often pushing the boundaries of knowledge and so need to acknowledge that they are venturing into new areas of thought. Therefore, it is more appropriate to indicate likelihood or possibility rather than certainty. To make your own writing sound more academic, and to acknowledge the ongoing nature of research, you may wish to employ qualifiers, particularly in discussion and conclusion sections.
Sentence Patterns
Sentence patterns: Academic writing is typically detailed and in-depth, meaning that writers may need to include a lot of information in each sentence. For this reason, academic sentences are often composed of more than one clause; a clause consists of a related subject and verb. Grammar textbooks often describe sentences in the following ways:
Simple – contains one subject and verb (one clause) and completes a thought.
E.g. The Interior Salish website is a valuable resource.
Compound – contains two clauses joined by a conjunction.
E.g. The Interior Salish website is a valuable resource and many students rely on its learning materials.
Complex – contains one main clause and one subordinate clause that depends on the main clause (in other words, the thought is not complete without the main clause).
E.g. Although the Interior Salish website is already a valuable resource, researchers continue to add to its curriculum project.
Compound – complex – contains two or more main clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
E.g. While language revitalization is ongoing, the Interior Salish website is one valuable resource and many students rely on its learning materials.
While academic sentences are often compound or complex, it is still important that the meaning is clear. So you will want to check your sentences to be sure that the relationships between ideas are likely to make sense to your reader (when the relationships are not clear that is often called fused or spliced sentences) and that the sentences are not so long that the reader loses track of the meaning (often called run-on sentences). If you need to make changes, you can use conjunctions (such as “and,” “or,” “but”), subordination (words that indicate one idea depends on another such as “after,” “although,” “because,” or “despite”), or punctuation (you might decide that the ideas work better as two, separate sentences).
Examples
Take a look at the following examples and decide whether the sentences are clear and academic in style, or whether they need some editing for a university paper:
- Tania Willard explains that it’s possible to cite the land she shows some ways to do this.
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There is concern about who is cited in academic papers, while there is no right or wrong answer, citation justice is an important concept.
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Also people’s ability to acknowledge the land and its importance in learning.
- Site/ation helps identify the contexts for learning.
Activity and reflection
Now that you have completed this chapter, return to the question in the introduction. How do you think Indigenous communication needs might intersect with and diverge from academic needs and expectations? Where do academic practices need to change?
Readings/Viewings/Listenings:
“In Defense of Rhetoric’: No Longer Just for Liars.” Clemson English. Uploaded: June 27, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5ut9bwkH7c
“Introduction to Rhetoric”. Video. OWL, Purdue University. Uploaded: January 31, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mIESu4yXco4
“Understanding Writing: The Rhetorical Situation.” Slide deck. On-Campus Writing Lab (OWL). Purdue University. Accessed: August 28, 2024. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/rhetorical_situation/index.html