{"id":2032,"date":"2020-04-30T17:56:02","date_gmt":"2020-04-30T21:56:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/chapter\/occurrence-and-preparation-of-the-representative-metals\/"},"modified":"2021-07-14T22:53:56","modified_gmt":"2021-07-15T02:53:56","slug":"occurrence-and-preparation-of-the-representative-metals","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/chapter\/occurrence-and-preparation-of-the-representative-metals\/","title":{"raw":"3.3 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals","rendered":"3.3 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals"},"content":{"raw":"[latexpage]\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Identify natural sources of representative metals<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe electrolytic and chemical reduction processes used to prepare these elements from natural sources<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp111515632\">Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements in nature. However, compounds that contain ions of most representative metals are abundant. In this section, we will consider the two common techniques used to isolate the metals from these compounds\u2014electrolysis and chemical reduction.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp233041184\">These metals primarily occur in minerals, with lithium found in silicate or phosphate minerals, and sodium and potassium found in salt deposits from evaporation of ancient seas and in silicates. The alkaline earth metals occur as silicates and, with the exception of beryllium, as carbonates and sulfates. Beryllium occurs as the mineral beryl, Be<sub>3<\/sub>Al<sub>2<\/sub>Si<sub>6<\/sub>O<sub>18<\/sub>, which, with certain impurities, may be either the gemstone emerald or aquamarine. Magnesium is in seawater and, along with the heavier alkaline earth metals, occurs as silicates, carbonates, and sulfates. Aluminum occurs abundantly in many types of clay and in bauxite, an impure aluminum oxide hydroxide. The principle tin ore is the oxide cassiterite, SnO<sub>2<\/sub>, and the principle lead and thallium ores are the sulfides or the products of weathering of the sulfides. The remaining representative metals occur as impurities in zinc or aluminum ores.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp232284896\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Electrolysis<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp79571184\">Ions of metals in of groups 1 and 2, along with aluminum, are very difficult to reduce; therefore, it is necessary to prepare these elements by electrolysis, an important process discussed in the chapter on electrochemistry. Briefly, electrolysis involves using electrical energy to drive unfavorable chemical reactions to completion; it is useful in the isolation of reactive metals in their pure forms. Sodium, aluminum, and magnesium are typical examples.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp25974496\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Sodium<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp77704912\">The most important method for the production of sodium is the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride; the set-up is a <span data-type=\"term\">Downs cell<\/span>, shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell\">(Figure 3.3.1)<\/a>. The reaction involved in this process is:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp60529744\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{2NaCl}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\underset{600\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{\u00b0C}}{\\overset{\\phantom{\\rule{0.5em}{0ex}}\\text{electrolysis}\\phantom{\\rule{0.5em}{0ex}}}{\\to }}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Na}\\left(l\\right)+{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp72558800\">The electrolysis cell contains molten sodium chloride (melting point 801 \u00b0C), to which calcium chloride has been added to lower the melting point to 600 \u00b0C (a colligative effect). The passage of a direct current through the cell causes the sodium ions to migrate to the negatively charged cathode and pick up electrons, reducing the ions to sodium metal. Chloride ions migrate to the positively charged anode, lose electrons, and undergo oxidation to chlorine gas. The overall cell reaction comes from adding the following reactions:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp1741488\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\begin{array}{l}\\text{at the cathode:}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{2Na}}^{+}+{\\text{2e}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\\text{2Na}\\left(l\\right)\\\\ \\text{at the anode:}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{2Cl}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{2e}}^{-}\\\\ \\text{overall change:}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{2Na}}^{+}+{\\text{2Cl}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Na}\\left(l\\right)+{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\end{array}\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp289844720\">Separation of the molten sodium and chlorine prevents recombination. The liquid sodium, which is less dense than molten sodium chloride, floats to the surface and flows into a collector. The gaseous chlorine goes to storage tanks. Chlorine is also a valuable product.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"731\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram is shown. At the center of the diagram is a T-shaped structure labeled, \u201cAnode ( positive sign ),\u201d that is on a mesh-like background labeled, \u201cIron screen.\u201d The anode is connected to a box labeled, \u201cVoltage source,\u201d by a line, and the voltage source is connected to one of two L-shaped structures that surround the anode. They are labeled, \u201cCathode ( negative sign ).\u201d Above the cathode on the right side of the diagram is a tube connected to a collection chamber labeled, \u201cN a metal,\u201d that has a lower outlet labeled, \u201cN a outlet.\u201d Surrounding all of these components is a blue background labeled, \u201cMolten N a C l,\u201d and a series of tubes that form a square outside the diagram. They have an opening in the upper right corner labeled, \u201cInlet for N a C l.\u201d At the top of the diagram is a large tube with an upward-facing arrow drawn on it. The tube turns right, has a right-facing arrow on it, and is labeled, \u201cC l subscript 2 outlet.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"624\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.3.1 - Pure sodium metal is isolated by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using a Downs cell. It is not possible to isolate sodium by electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium salts because hydrogen ions are more easily reduced than are sodium ions; as a result, hydrogen gas forms at the cathode instead of the desired sodium metal. The high temperature required to melt NaCl means that liquid sodium metal forms.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp58959792\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Aluminum<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp122485616\">The preparation of aluminum utilizes a process invented in 1886 by Charles M. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Hall<\/span>, who began to work on the problem while a student at Oberlin College in Ohio. Paul L. T. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">H\u00e9roult<\/span> discovered the process independently a month or two later in France. In honor to the two inventors, this electrolysis cell is known as the <span data-type=\"term\">Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell<\/span>. The Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell is an electrolysis cell for the production of aluminum. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\">(Figure 3.3.2)<\/a> illustrates the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp233465360\">The production of aluminum begins with the purification of bauxite, the most common source of aluminum. The reaction of bauxite, AlO(OH), with hot sodium hydroxide forms soluble sodium aluminate, while clay and other impurities remain undissolved:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp372582096\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{AlO}\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)\\left(s\\right)+\\text{NaOH}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Na}\\left[\\text{Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{4}\\right]\\left(aq\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp157686224\">After the removal of the impurities by filtration, the addition of acid to the aluminate leads to the reprecipitation of aluminum hydroxide:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp149385664\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{Na}\\left[\\text{Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{4}\\right]\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{3}{\\text{O}}^{\\text{+}}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{3}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{Na}}^{\\text{+}}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{2H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp46332064\">The next step is to remove the precipitated aluminum hydroxide by filtration. Heating the hydroxide produces aluminum oxide, Al<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, which dissolves in a molten mixture of cryolite, Na<sub>3<\/sub>AlF<sub>6<\/sub>, and calcium fluoride, CaF<sub>2<\/sub>. Electrolysis of this solution takes place in a cell like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\">(Figure 3.3.2)<\/a>. Reduction of aluminum ions to the metal occurs at the cathode, while oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide form at the anode.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1300\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell-1.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram is shown. At the center of the diagram are two black squares, each labeled, \u201cCarbon anode ( positive sign ),\u201d and connected by forked tubes to a horizontal tube labeled with a positive sign. The carbon anodes are submerged in a green liquid labeled, \u201cA l subscript 2 O subscript 3 dissolved in molten N a subscript 3 A l F subscript 6.\u201d It is held in place by a three-sided, double layered container which is labeled, \u201cSteel sheet,\u201d on the outer layer and, \u201cCeramic,\u201d on the inner layer. The carbon anodes are surrounded by bubbles labeled, \u201cBubbles of O subscript 2, C O, and C O subscript 2.\u201d Below the green liquids lies a silver layer labeled, \u201cMolten aluminum,\u201d and a black layer labeled, \u201cCarbon cathode ( negative sign ).\u201d Above the diagram is an outlet tube labeled with an upward-facing arrow and the words, \u201cH F and particulates exhaust to filter plant.\u201d\" width=\"1300\" height=\"811\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.3.2 - An electrolytic cell is used for the production of aluminum. The electrolysis of a solution of cryolite and calcium fluoride results in aluminum metal at the cathode, and oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide at the anode.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp296516320\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Magnesium<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp141293808\">Magnesium is the other metal that is isolated in large quantities by electrolysis. Seawater, which contains approximately 0.5% magnesium chloride, serves as the major source of magnesium. Addition of calcium hydroxide to seawater precipitates magnesium hydroxide. The addition of hydrochloric acid to magnesium hydroxide, followed by evaporation of the resultant aqueous solution, leaves pure magnesium chloride. The electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride forms liquid magnesium and chlorine gas:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp29891440\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{MgCl}}_{2}\\left(aq\\right)+\\text{Ca}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{2}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Mg}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{2}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{CaCl}}_{2}\\left(aq\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp264736752\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{Mg}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{2}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{2HCl}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{MgCl}}_{2}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{2H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp82789984\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{MgCl}}_{2}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Mg}\\left(l\\right)+{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp217984240\">Some production facilities have moved away from electrolysis completely. In the next section, we will see how the Pidgeon process leads to the chemical reduction of magnesium.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp154016304\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Chemical Reduction<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp79584928\">It is possible to isolate many of the representative metals by <span data-type=\"term\">chemical reduction<\/span> using other elements as reducing agents. In general, chemical reduction is much less expensive than electrolysis, and for this reason, chemical reduction is the method of choice for the isolation of these elements. For example, it is possible to produce potassium, rubidium, and cesium by chemical reduction, as it is possible to reduce the molten chlorides of these metals with sodium metal. This may be surprising given that these metals are more reactive than sodium; however, the metals formed are more volatile than sodium and can be distilled for collection. The removal of the metal vapor leads to a shift in the equilibrium to produce more metal (see how reactions can be driven in the discussions of Le Ch\u00e2telier\u2019s principle in the chapter on fundamental equilibrium concepts).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp109004816\">The production of magnesium, zinc, and tin provide additional examples of chemical reduction.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp81243920\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Magnesium<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp232802512\">The <span data-type=\"term\">Pidgeon process<\/span> involves the reaction of magnesium oxide with elemental silicon at high temperatures to form pure magnesium:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp128104224\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{Si}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{2MgO}\\left(s\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\stackrel{\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\\Delta\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}}{\\to }\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{SiO}}_{2}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{2Mg}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp34921904\">Although this reaction is unfavorable in terms of thermodynamics, the removal of the magnesium vapor produced takes advantage of Le Ch\u00e2telier\u2019s principle to continue the forward progress of the reaction. Over 75% of the world\u2019s production of magnesium, primarily in China, comes from this process.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp49793088\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Zinc<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp81517344\">Zinc ores usually contain zinc sulfide, zinc oxide, or zinc carbonate. After separation of these compounds from the ores, heating in air converts the ore to zinc oxide by one of the following reactions:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp28884832\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{2ZnS}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{3O}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\stackrel{\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\\Delta\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}}{\\to }\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2ZnO}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{2SO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp120800288\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{ZnCO}}_{3}\\left(s\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\stackrel{\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\\Delta\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}}{\\to }\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{ZnO}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{CO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp141725568\">Carbon, in the form of coal, reduces the zinc oxide to form zinc vapor:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp100139536\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{ZnO}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{C}\\left(s\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Zn}\\left(g\\right)+\\text{CO}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp80292352\">The zinc can be distilled (boiling point 907 \u00b0C) and condensed. This zinc contains impurities of cadmium (767 \u00b0C), iron (2862 \u00b0C), lead (1750 \u00b0C), and arsenic (613 \u00b0C). Careful redistillation produces pure zinc. Arsenic and cadmium are distilled from the zinc because they have lower boiling points. At higher temperatures, the zinc is distilled from the other impurities, mainly lead and iron.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp266392272\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Tin<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm7467360\">The ready reduction of tin(IV) oxide by the hot coals of a campfire accounts for the knowledge of tin in the ancient world. In the modern process, the roasting of tin ores containing SnO<sub>2<\/sub> removes contaminants such as arsenic and sulfur as volatile oxides. Treatment of the remaining material with hydrochloric acid removes the oxides of other metals. Heating the purified ore with carbon at temperature above 1000 \u00b0C produces tin:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp55068128\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{SnO}}_{2}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{2C}\\left(s\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\stackrel{\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}\\Delta\\phantom{\\rule{0.4em}{0ex}}}{\\to }\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Sn}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{2CO}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp117978352\">The molten tin collects at the bottom of the furnace and is drawn off and cast into blocks.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp155164000\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Key Concepts and Summary<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp270452384\">Because of their chemical reactivity, it is necessary to produce the representative metals in their pure forms by reduction from naturally occurring compounds. Electrolysis is important in the production of sodium, potassium, and aluminum. Chemical reduction is the primary method for the isolation of magnesium, zinc, and tin. Similar procedures are important for the other representative metals.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<strong>Some notes on Preparation, reaction and complexes of alkali metals:\u00a0<\/strong>\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/General_Chemistry\/Book%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)\/21%3A_Periodic_Trends_and_the_s-Block_Elements\/21.3%3A_The_Alkali_Metals_(Group_1)\">https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/General_Chemistry\/Book%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)\/21%3A_Periodic_Trends_and_the_s-Block_Elements\/21.3%3A_The_Alkali_Metals_(Group_1)<\/a>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp155164000\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercises<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp79750944\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp47351088\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp3792624\">(1) Write an equation for the reduction of cesium chloride by elemental calcium at high temperature.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">\\(\\text{2CsCl}\\left(l\\right)+\\text{Ca}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\stackrel{\\phantom{\\rule{0.7em}{0ex}}\\begin{array}{l}\\text{countercurrent}\\\\ \\text{fractionating}\\\\ \\text{tower}\\end{array}}{\\to }\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Cs}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{CaCl}}_{2}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp199448112\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp80152160\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp49676080\">(2) Why is it necessary to keep the chlorine and sodium, resulting from the electrolysis of sodium chloride, separate during the production of sodium metal?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp265303360\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp59622880\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp111274816\">(3) Give balanced equations for the overall reaction in the electrolysis of molten lithium chloride and for the reactions occurring at the electrodes. You may wish to review the chapter on electrochemistry for relevant examples.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Cathode (reduction): \\({\\text{2Li}}^{+}+{\\text{2e}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Li}\\left(l\\right)\\text{;}\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anode (oxidation): \\({\\text{2Cl}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{2e}}^{\\text{\u2212}};\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Overall reaction: \\({\\text{2Li}}^{+}+{\\text{2Cl}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Li}\\left(l\\right)+{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp119437920\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp173926928\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp114115856\">(4) The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride or of aqueous sodium chloride produces chlorine. Calculate the mass of chlorine produced from 3.00 kg sodium chloride in each case. You may wish to review the chapter on electrochemistry for relevant examples.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp84582880\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp43142624\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp81306256\">(5) What mass, in grams, of hydrogen gas forms during the complete reaction of 10.01 g of calcium with water?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">0.5035 g H<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp247351248\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp56785888\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp115632416\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm8600064\">(6) How many grams of oxygen gas are necessary to react completely with 3.01 \\($\\times$\\) 10<sup>21<\/sup> atoms of magnesium to yield magnesium oxide?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm19716784\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm1195520\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp265941728\">(7) Magnesium is an active metal; it burns in the form of powder, ribbons, and filaments to provide flashes of brilliant light. Why is it possible to use magnesium in construction?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Despite its reactivity, magnesium can be used in construction even when the magnesium is going to come in contact with a flame because a protective oxide coating is formed, preventing gross oxidation. Only if the metal is finely subdivided or present in a thin sheet will a high-intensity flame cause its rapid burning.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp59051008\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp236482640\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp48296384\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp29506928\">(8) Why is it possible for an active metal like aluminum to be useful as a structural metal?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp72169040\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp97150944\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp47541392\">(9) Describe the production of metallic aluminum by electrolytic reduction.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Extract from ore: \\(\\text{AlO}\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)\\left(s\\right)+\\text{NaOH}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Na}\\left[\\text{Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{4}\\right]\\left(aq\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recover: \\(\\text{2Na}\\left[\\text{Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{4}\\right]\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{2}{\\text{SO}}_{4}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{3}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{Na}}_{2}{\\text{SO}}_{4}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{2H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Sinter: \\(\\text{2Al}{\\left(\\text{OH}\\right)}_{3}\\left(s\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{Al}}_{2}{\\text{O}}_{3}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{3H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Dissolve in Na<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">3<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">AlF<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">6<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(<\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) and electrolyze: \\({\\text{Al}}^{3+}+{\\text{3e}}^{-}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{Al}\\left(s\\right)\\)<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp96928112\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp198987536\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp143808128\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp223677712\">(10) What is the common ore of tin and how is tin separated from it?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp139236992\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp209919200\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp82805216\">(11) A chemist dissolves a 1.497-g sample of a type of metal (an alloy of Sn, Pb, Sb, and Cu) in nitric acid, and metastannic acid, H<sub>2<\/sub>SnO<sub>3<\/sub>, is precipitated. She heats the precipitate to drive off the water, which leaves 0.4909 g of tin(IV) oxide. What was the percentage of tin in the original sample?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">25.83%<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp237555664\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp115931216\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp216115200\">Consider the production of 100 kg of sodium metal using a current of 50,000 A, assuming a 100% yield.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp154659056\">(12a) How long will it take to produce the 100 kg of sodium metal?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm22608880\">(12b) What volume of chlorine at 25 \u00b0C and 1.00 atm forms?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp116461520\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp84401424\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp97252544\">(13) What mass of magnesium forms when 100,000 A is passed through a MgCl<sub>2<\/sub> melt for 1.00 h if the yield of magnesium is 85% of the theoretical yield?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">39 kg<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp238031216\">\r\n \t<dt>[pb_glossary id=\"3011\"]chemical reduction[\/pb_glossary]<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp233318528\">method of preparing a representative metal using a reducing agent<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp11434288\">\r\n \t<dt>[pb_glossary id=\"3012\"]Downs cell[\/pb_glossary]<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp111238176\">electrochemical cell used for the commercial preparation of metallic sodium (and chlorine) from molten sodium chloride<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp167269072\">\r\n \t<dt>[pb_glossary id=\"3013\"]Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell[\/pb_glossary]<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp17773488\">electrolysis apparatus used to isolate pure aluminum metal from a solution of alumina in molten cryolite<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp121441888\">\r\n \t<dt>[pb_glossary id=\"3014\"]Pidgeon process[\/pb_glossary]<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp149476400\">chemical reduction process used to produce magnesium through the thermal reaction of magnesium oxide with silicon<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Identify natural sources of representative metals<\/li>\n<li>Describe electrolytic and chemical reduction processes used to prepare these elements from natural sources<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp111515632\">Because of their reactivity, we do not find most representative metals as free elements in nature. However, compounds that contain ions of most representative metals are abundant. In this section, we will consider the two common techniques used to isolate the metals from these compounds\u2014electrolysis and chemical reduction.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp233041184\">These metals primarily occur in minerals, with lithium found in silicate or phosphate minerals, and sodium and potassium found in salt deposits from evaporation of ancient seas and in silicates. The alkaline earth metals occur as silicates and, with the exception of beryllium, as carbonates and sulfates. Beryllium occurs as the mineral beryl, Be<sub>3<\/sub>Al<sub>2<\/sub>Si<sub>6<\/sub>O<sub>18<\/sub>, which, with certain impurities, may be either the gemstone emerald or aquamarine. Magnesium is in seawater and, along with the heavier alkaline earth metals, occurs as silicates, carbonates, and sulfates. Aluminum occurs abundantly in many types of clay and in bauxite, an impure aluminum oxide hydroxide. The principle tin ore is the oxide cassiterite, SnO<sub>2<\/sub>, and the principle lead and thallium ores are the sulfides or the products of weathering of the sulfides. The remaining representative metals occur as impurities in zinc or aluminum ores.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp232284896\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Electrolysis<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp79571184\">Ions of metals in of groups 1 and 2, along with aluminum, are very difficult to reduce; therefore, it is necessary to prepare these elements by electrolysis, an important process discussed in the chapter on electrochemistry. Briefly, electrolysis involves using electrical energy to drive unfavorable chemical reactions to completion; it is useful in the isolation of reactive metals in their pure forms. Sodium, aluminum, and magnesium are typical examples.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp25974496\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Sodium<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp77704912\">The most important method for the production of sodium is the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride; the set-up is a <span data-type=\"term\">Downs cell<\/span>, shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell\">(Figure 3.3.1)<\/a>. The reaction involved in this process is:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp60529744\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-d8e03205675f7da23f56948fd6d84925_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#117;&#110;&#100;&#101;&#114;&#115;&#101;&#116;&#123;&#54;&#48;&#48;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&deg;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#111;&#118;&#101;&#114;&#115;&#101;&#116;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#53;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#101;&#108;&#101;&#99;&#116;&#114;&#111;&#108;&#121;&#115;&#105;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#53;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"33\" width=\"300\" style=\"vertical-align: -12px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp72558800\">The electrolysis cell contains molten sodium chloride (melting point 801 \u00b0C), to which calcium chloride has been added to lower the melting point to 600 \u00b0C (a colligative effect). The passage of a direct current through the cell causes the sodium ions to migrate to the negatively charged cathode and pick up electrons, reducing the ions to sodium metal. Chloride ions migrate to the positively charged anode, lose electrons, and undergo oxidation to chlorine gas. The overall cell reaction comes from adding the following reactions:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp1741488\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-88cacca08a17ab77d16c1cb607866643_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#98;&#101;&#103;&#105;&#110;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#123;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#116;&#104;&#101;&#32;&#99;&#97;&#116;&#104;&#111;&#100;&#101;&#58;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#101;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#116;&#104;&#101;&#32;&#97;&#110;&#111;&#100;&#101;&#58;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#101;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#111;&#118;&#101;&#114;&#97;&#108;&#108;&#32;&#99;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#103;&#101;&#58;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#101;&#110;&#100;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"64\" width=\"368\" style=\"vertical-align: -27px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp289844720\">Separation of the molten sodium and chlorine prevents recombination. The liquid sodium, which is less dense than molten sodium chloride, floats to the surface and flows into a collector. The gaseous chlorine goes to storage tanks. Chlorine is also a valuable product.<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<figure style=\"width: 731px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_02_DownsCell.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram is shown. At the center of the diagram is a T-shaped structure labeled, \u201cAnode ( positive sign ),\u201d that is on a mesh-like background labeled, \u201cIron screen.\u201d The anode is connected to a box labeled, \u201cVoltage source,\u201d by a line, and the voltage source is connected to one of two L-shaped structures that surround the anode. They are labeled, \u201cCathode ( negative sign ).\u201d Above the cathode on the right side of the diagram is a tube connected to a collection chamber labeled, \u201cN a metal,\u201d that has a lower outlet labeled, \u201cN a outlet.\u201d Surrounding all of these components is a blue background labeled, \u201cMolten N a C l,\u201d and a series of tubes that form a square outside the diagram. They have an opening in the upper right corner labeled, \u201cInlet for N a C l.\u201d At the top of the diagram is a large tube with an upward-facing arrow drawn on it. The tube turns right, has a right-facing arrow on it, and is labeled, \u201cC l subscript 2 outlet.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"624\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.3.1 &#8211; Pure sodium metal is isolated by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using a Downs cell. It is not possible to isolate sodium by electrolysis of aqueous solutions of sodium salts because hydrogen ions are more easily reduced than are sodium ions; as a result, hydrogen gas forms at the cathode instead of the desired sodium metal. The high temperature required to melt NaCl means that liquid sodium metal forms.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp58959792\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Aluminum<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp122485616\">The preparation of aluminum utilizes a process invented in 1886 by Charles M. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Hall<\/span>, who began to work on the problem while a student at Oberlin College in Ohio. Paul L. T. <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">H\u00e9roult<\/span> discovered the process independently a month or two later in France. In honor to the two inventors, this electrolysis cell is known as the <span data-type=\"term\">Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell<\/span>. The Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell is an electrolysis cell for the production of aluminum. <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\">(Figure 3.3.2)<\/a> illustrates the Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp233465360\">The production of aluminum begins with the purification of bauxite, the most common source of aluminum. The reaction of bauxite, AlO(OH), with hot sodium hydroxide forms soluble sodium aluminate, while clay and other impurities remain undissolved:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp372582096\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-62c9bcda8935c680fe09e17ddbc5607e_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#091;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#093;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"446\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp157686224\">After the removal of the impurities by filtration, the addition of acid to the aluminate leads to the reprecipitation of aluminum hydroxide:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp149385664\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-686a69c2ee7b576aac59f2a53bda883a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#091;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#093;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"20\" width=\"535\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp46332064\">The next step is to remove the precipitated aluminum hydroxide by filtration. Heating the hydroxide produces aluminum oxide, Al<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, which dissolves in a molten mixture of cryolite, Na<sub>3<\/sub>AlF<sub>6<\/sub>, and calcium fluoride, CaF<sub>2<\/sub>. Electrolysis of this solution takes place in a cell like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\">(Figure 3.3.2)<\/a>. Reduction of aluminum ions to the metal occurs at the cathode, while oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide form at the anode.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<figure style=\"width: 1300px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_02_HallHerCell-1.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram is shown. At the center of the diagram are two black squares, each labeled, \u201cCarbon anode ( positive sign ),\u201d and connected by forked tubes to a horizontal tube labeled with a positive sign. The carbon anodes are submerged in a green liquid labeled, \u201cA l subscript 2 O subscript 3 dissolved in molten N a subscript 3 A l F subscript 6.\u201d It is held in place by a three-sided, double layered container which is labeled, \u201cSteel sheet,\u201d on the outer layer and, \u201cCeramic,\u201d on the inner layer. The carbon anodes are surrounded by bubbles labeled, \u201cBubbles of O subscript 2, C O, and C O subscript 2.\u201d Below the green liquids lies a silver layer labeled, \u201cMolten aluminum,\u201d and a black layer labeled, \u201cCarbon cathode ( negative sign ).\u201d Above the diagram is an outlet tube labeled with an upward-facing arrow and the words, \u201cH F and particulates exhaust to filter plant.\u201d\" width=\"1300\" height=\"811\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.3.2 &#8211; An electrolytic cell is used for the production of aluminum. The electrolysis of a solution of cryolite and calcium fluoride results in aluminum metal at the cathode, and oxygen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide at the anode.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp296516320\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Magnesium<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp141293808\">Magnesium is the other metal that is isolated in large quantities by electrolysis. Seawater, which contains approximately 0.5% magnesium chloride, serves as the major source of magnesium. Addition of calcium hydroxide to seawater precipitates magnesium hydroxide. The addition of hydrochloric acid to magnesium hydroxide, followed by evaporation of the resultant aqueous solution, leaves pure magnesium chloride. The electrolysis of molten magnesium chloride forms liquid magnesium and chlorine gas:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp29891440\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f1914220c8ca3885283537e7a4223c21_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#97;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#97;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"441\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp264736752\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-2375f819ef83d2a6a320d33d11a9d3bd_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"395\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp82789984\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f717066066c24ce92d4cfabb38bf6485_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#77;&#103;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"217\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp217984240\">Some production facilities have moved away from electrolysis completely. In the next section, we will see how the Pidgeon process leads to the chemical reduction of magnesium.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp154016304\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Chemical Reduction<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp79584928\">It is possible to isolate many of the representative metals by <span data-type=\"term\">chemical reduction<\/span> using other elements as reducing agents. In general, chemical reduction is much less expensive than electrolysis, and for this reason, chemical reduction is the method of choice for the isolation of these elements. For example, it is possible to produce potassium, rubidium, and cesium by chemical reduction, as it is possible to reduce the molten chlorides of these metals with sodium metal. This may be surprising given that these metals are more reactive than sodium; however, the metals formed are more volatile than sodium and can be distilled for collection. The removal of the metal vapor leads to a shift in the equilibrium to produce more metal (see how reactions can be driven in the discussions of Le Ch\u00e2telier\u2019s principle in the chapter on fundamental equilibrium concepts).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp109004816\">The production of magnesium, zinc, and tin provide additional examples of chemical reduction.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp81243920\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Magnesium<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp232802512\">The <span data-type=\"term\">Pidgeon process<\/span> involves the reaction of magnesium oxide with elemental silicon at high temperatures to form pure magnesium:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp128104224\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-700ae9b31af0670e0f5fc8032efcd367_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#105;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#77;&#103;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#115;&#116;&#97;&#99;&#107;&#114;&#101;&#108;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#105;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#77;&#103;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"322\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp34921904\">Although this reaction is unfavorable in terms of thermodynamics, the removal of the magnesium vapor produced takes advantage of Le Ch\u00e2telier\u2019s principle to continue the forward progress of the reaction. Over 75% of the world\u2019s production of magnesium, primarily in China, comes from this process.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp49793088\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Zinc<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp81517344\">Zinc ores usually contain zinc sulfide, zinc oxide, or zinc carbonate. After separation of these compounds from the ores, heating in air converts the ore to zinc oxide by one of the following reactions:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp28884832\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-17a9d67f26b9a5c89f8744ff707c4d1a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#90;&#110;&#83;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#115;&#116;&#97;&#99;&#107;&#114;&#101;&#108;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#90;&#110;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#83;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"343\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp120800288\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9434b927bbdf684099bc96bc798b6e73_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#90;&#110;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#115;&#116;&#97;&#99;&#107;&#114;&#101;&#108;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#90;&#110;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"266\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp141725568\">Carbon, in the form of coal, reduces the zinc oxide to form zinc vapor:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp100139536\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-a1bff7faeaa6c043faa78a33c88e9efa_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#90;&#110;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#90;&#110;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"264\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp80292352\">The zinc can be distilled (boiling point 907 \u00b0C) and condensed. This zinc contains impurities of cadmium (767 \u00b0C), iron (2862 \u00b0C), lead (1750 \u00b0C), and arsenic (613 \u00b0C). Careful redistillation produces pure zinc. Arsenic and cadmium are distilled from the zinc because they have lower boiling points. At higher temperatures, the zinc is distilled from the other impurities, mainly lead and iron.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp266392272\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h3 data-type=\"title\">The Preparation of Tin<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idm7467360\">The ready reduction of tin(IV) oxide by the hot coals of a campfire accounts for the knowledge of tin in the ancient world. In the modern process, the roasting of tin ores containing SnO<sub>2<\/sub> removes contaminants such as arsenic and sulfur as volatile oxides. Treatment of the remaining material with hydrochloric acid removes the oxides of other metals. Heating the purified ore with carbon at temperature above 1000 \u00b0C produces tin:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp55068128\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-281754cae96dc83afb2574b7290ea815_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#110;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#115;&#116;&#97;&#99;&#107;&#114;&#101;&#108;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#52;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#110;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"307\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp117978352\">The molten tin collects at the bottom of the furnace and is drawn off and cast into blocks.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp155164000\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Key Concepts and Summary<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp270452384\">Because of their chemical reactivity, it is necessary to produce the representative metals in their pure forms by reduction from naturally occurring compounds. Electrolysis is important in the production of sodium, potassium, and aluminum. Chemical reduction is the primary method for the isolation of magnesium, zinc, and tin. Similar procedures are important for the other representative metals.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p><strong>Some notes on Preparation, reaction and complexes of alkali metals:\u00a0<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/General_Chemistry\/Book%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)\/21%3A_Periodic_Trends_and_the_s-Block_Elements\/21.3%3A_The_Alkali_Metals_(Group_1)\">https:\/\/chem.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/General_Chemistry\/Book%3A_Chemistry_(Averill_and_Eldredge)\/21%3A_Periodic_Trends_and_the_s-Block_Elements\/21.3%3A_The_Alkali_Metals_(Group_1)<\/a><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp155164000\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercises<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp79750944\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp47351088\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp3792624\">(1) Write an equation for the reduction of cesium chloride by elemental calcium at high temperature.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-3bb743a7922aaa28aefa20cb7f52da66_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#115;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#115;&#116;&#97;&#99;&#107;&#114;&#101;&#108;&#123;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#55;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#98;&#101;&#103;&#105;&#110;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#123;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#99;&#111;&#117;&#110;&#116;&#101;&#114;&#99;&#117;&#114;&#114;&#101;&#110;&#116;&#125;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#116;&#105;&#111;&#110;&#97;&#116;&#105;&#110;&#103;&#125;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#116;&#111;&#119;&#101;&#114;&#125;&#92;&#101;&#110;&#100;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#111;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#97;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"74\" width=\"445\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp199448112\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp80152160\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp49676080\">(2) Why is it necessary to keep the chlorine and sodium, resulting from the electrolysis of sodium chloride, separate during the production of sodium metal?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp265303360\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp59622880\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp111274816\">(3) Give balanced equations for the overall reaction in the electrolysis of molten lithium chloride and for the reactions occurring at the electrodes. You may wish to review the chapter on electrochemistry for relevant examples.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Cathode (reduction): <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0c92d6b6b11c8926676024b77d7d3e36_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#76;&#105;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#101;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#76;&#105;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#59;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"20\" width=\"162\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Anode (oxidation): <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-b7bbdafedf0aafa0590717867b4df8ea_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#101;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#8722;&#125;&#125;&#59;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"157\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Overall reaction: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-36ed060cfe1685d795aa8a01ac991174_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#76;&#105;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#76;&#105;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"20\" width=\"237\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp119437920\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp173926928\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp114115856\">(4) The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride or of aqueous sodium chloride produces chlorine. Calculate the mass of chlorine produced from 3.00 kg sodium chloride in each case. You may wish to review the chapter on electrochemistry for relevant examples.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp84582880\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp43142624\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp81306256\">(5) What mass, in grams, of hydrogen gas forms during the complete reaction of 10.01 g of calcium with water?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">0.5035 g H<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp247351248\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp56785888\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp115632416\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm8600064\">(6) How many grams of oxygen gas are necessary to react completely with 3.01 <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-dcfac4301efcb0a191f8cda6f9466f1a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#36;&#92;&#116;&#105;&#109;&#101;&#115;&#36;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"9\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> 10<sup>21<\/sup> atoms of magnesium to yield magnesium oxide?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm19716784\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm1195520\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp265941728\">(7) Magnesium is an active metal; it burns in the form of powder, ribbons, and filaments to provide flashes of brilliant light. Why is it possible to use magnesium in construction?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Despite its reactivity, magnesium can be used in construction even when the magnesium is going to come in contact with a flame because a protective oxide coating is formed, preventing gross oxidation. Only if the metal is finely subdivided or present in a thin sheet will a high-intensity flame cause its rapid burning.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp59051008\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp236482640\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp48296384\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp29506928\">(8) Why is it possible for an active metal like aluminum to be useful as a structural metal?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp72169040\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp97150944\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp47541392\">(9) Describe the production of metallic aluminum by electrolytic reduction.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Extract from ore: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-62c9bcda8935c680fe09e17ddbc5607e_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#091;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#093;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"446\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Recover: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-b48b5d981fa38a5813e548d2de247301_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#091;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#093;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#97;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#83;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"577\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Sinter: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-70fdbfa910e32881fcd112b634714a03_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"291\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Dissolve in Na<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">3<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">AlF<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">6<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(<\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" data-effect=\"italics\">l<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) and electrolyze: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-faafaf4fc4006d80551eb94b45d60121_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#51;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#101;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"21\" width=\"150\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp96928112\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp198987536\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp143808128\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp223677712\">(10) What is the common ore of tin and how is tin separated from it?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp139236992\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp209919200\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp82805216\">(11) A chemist dissolves a 1.497-g sample of a type of metal (an alloy of Sn, Pb, Sb, and Cu) in nitric acid, and metastannic acid, H<sub>2<\/sub>SnO<sub>3<\/sub>, is precipitated. She heats the precipitate to drive off the water, which leaves 0.4909 g of tin(IV) oxide. What was the percentage of tin in the original sample?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">25.83%<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp237555664\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp115931216\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp216115200\">Consider the production of 100 kg of sodium metal using a current of 50,000 A, assuming a 100% yield.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp154659056\">(12a) How long will it take to produce the 100 kg of sodium metal?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm22608880\">(12b) What volume of chlorine at 25 \u00b0C and 1.00 atm forms?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp116461520\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp84401424\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp97252544\">(13) What mass of magnesium forms when 100,000 A is passed through a MgCl<sub>2<\/sub> melt for 1.00 h if the yield of magnesium is 85% of the theoretical yield?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">39 kg<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp238031216\">\n<dt><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_2032_3011\">chemical reduction<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp233318528\">method of preparing a representative metal using a reducing agent<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp11434288\">\n<dt><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_2032_3012\">Downs cell<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp111238176\">electrochemical cell used for the commercial preparation of metallic sodium (and chlorine) from molten sodium chloride<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp167269072\">\n<dt><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_2032_3013\">Hall\u2013H\u00e9roult cell<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp17773488\">electrolysis apparatus used to isolate pure aluminum metal from a solution of alumina in molten cryolite<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp121441888\">\n<dt><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_2032_3014\">Pidgeon process<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp149476400\">chemical reduction process used to produce magnesium through the thermal reaction of magnesium oxide with silicon<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_2032_3011\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_2032_3011\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>method of preparing a representative metal using a reducing agent<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_2032_3012\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_2032_3012\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>electrochemical cell used for the commercial preparation of metallic sodium (and chlorine) from molten sodium chloride<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_2032_3013\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_2032_3013\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>electrolysis apparatus used to isolate pure aluminum metal from a solution of alumina in molten cryolite<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_2032_3014\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_2032_3014\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>chemical reduction process used to produce magnesium through the thermal reaction of magnesium oxide with silicon<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":801,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2032","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":2018,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2032","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/801"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2032\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3601,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2032\/revisions\/3601"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/2018"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2032\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2032"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2032"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2032"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2032"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}