{"id":2079,"date":"2020-04-30T17:56:16","date_gmt":"2020-04-30T21:56:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/chapter\/occurrence-preparation-and-properties-of-nitrogen-2\/"},"modified":"2021-09-05T00:17:10","modified_gmt":"2021-09-05T04:17:10","slug":"occurrence-preparation-and-properties-of-nitrogen-2","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/chapter\/occurrence-preparation-and-properties-of-nitrogen-2\/","title":{"raw":"3.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen","rendered":"3.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen"},"content":{"raw":"[latexpage]\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the properties, preparation, and uses of nitrogen<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp100617568\">Most pure nitrogen comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen by volume. This means there are more than 20 million tons of nitrogen over every square mile of the earth\u2019s surface. Nitrogen is a component of proteins and of the genetic material (DNA\/RNA) of all plants and animals.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp20917824\">Under ordinary conditions, nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It boils at 77 K and freezes at 63 K. Liquid nitrogen is a useful coolant because it is inexpensive and has a low boiling point. Nitrogen is very unreactive because of the very strong triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. The only common reactions at room temperature occur with lithium to form Li<sub>3<\/sub>N, with certain transition metal complexes, and with hydrogen or oxygen in nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The general lack of reactivity of nitrogen makes the remarkable ability of some bacteria to synthesize nitrogen compounds using atmospheric nitrogen gas as the source one of the most exciting chemical events on our planet. This process is one type of <span data-type=\"term\">nitrogen fixation<\/span>. In this case, nitrogen fixation is the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals. Nitrogen fixation also occurs when lightning passes through air, causing molecular nitrogen to react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, which are then carried down to the soil.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp90361632\" class=\"chemistry everyday-life\" data-type=\"note\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Nitrogen Fixation<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm122679488\">All living organisms require nitrogen compounds for survival. Unfortunately, most of these organisms cannot absorb nitrogen from its most abundant source\u2014the atmosphere. Atmospheric nitrogen consists of N<sub>2<\/sub> molecules, which are very unreactive due to the strong nitrogen-nitrogen triple bond. However, a few organisms can overcome this problem through a process known as nitrogen fixation, illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen\">(Figure 3.8.1)<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1199\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen.jpg\" alt=\"A flow chart is shown. A cow, grass, and a tree are shown in the center of the diagram. Downward-facing arrows lead from them to the phrase, \u201cDecomposers ( aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and fungi ).\u201d A downward-facing arrow leads to a space-filing model with one blue atom bonded to four white atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cAmmonium ( N H subscript 4 ).\u201d A right-facing arrow leads from this molecule to another molecule that is composed of a blue atom bonded to two red atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cNitrites ( N O subscript 2 superscript negative sign ).\u201d Below this arrow is a picture of a circle with two rod-shaped structures. It is labeled, \u201cNitrifying bacteria.\u201d Above the nitrites label is an upward-facing arrow leading to a blue atom single-bonded to three red atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cNitrates ( N O subscript 3 superscript negative sign ).\u201d Next to this arrow is a picture of a circle with two rod-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrifying bacteria.\u201d The nitrates label has a double-headed, upward-facing arrow that leads to two pictures: one of the roots of the tree which is labeled, \u201cAssimilation,\u201d and one leading to a picture of a circle with four oval-shaped structures labeled, \u201cDenitrifying bacteria.\u201d A left-facing arrow leads from this bacteria to a molecule made up of two atoms triple-bonded together and labeled, \u201cAtmospheric nitrogen ( N subscript 2 ).\u201d This molecule is connected to a downward-facing, double-headed arrow that leads to an image showing yellow filaments on a black background and a picture of a circle with four rod-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrogen-fixing soil bacteria.\u201d An arrow leads from a picture of a plant\u2019s roots to the yellow filaments and then to a photo of a circle with four oval-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules.\u201d\" width=\"1199\" height=\"1127\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.1 - All living organisms require nitrogen. A few microorganisms are able to process atmospheric nitrogen using nitrogen fixation. (credit \u201croots\u201d: modification of work by the United States Department of Agriculture; credit \u201croot nodules\u201d: modification of work by Louisa Howard)<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm16624624\">Nitrogen fixation is the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals. To date, the only known kind of biological organisms capable of nitrogen fixation is microorganisms. These organisms employ enzymes called nitrogenases, which contain iron and molybdenum. Many of these microorganisms live in a symbiotic relationship with plants, with the best-known example being the presence of rhizobia in the root nodules of legumes.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp193317744\">Large volumes of atmospheric nitrogen are necessary for making ammonia\u2014the principal starting material used for the preparation of large quantities of other nitrogen-containing compounds. Most other uses for elemental nitrogen depend on its inactivity. It is helpful when a chemical process requires an inert atmosphere. Canned foods and luncheon meats cannot oxidize in a pure nitrogen atmosphere, so they retain a better flavor and color, and spoil less rapidly when sealed in nitrogen instead of air. This technology allows fresh produce to be available year-round, regardless of the growing season.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp19296512\">There are compounds with nitrogen in all of their oxidation states from 3\u2212 to 5+. Much of the chemistry of nitrogen involves oxidation-reduction reactions. Some active metals (such as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. In the remainder of this section, we will examine nitrogen-oxygen chemistry.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp79367584\">There are well-characterized nitrogen oxides in which nitrogen exhibits each of its positive oxidation numbers from 1+ to 5+. When ammonium nitrate is carefully heated, nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide) and water vapor form. Stronger heating generates nitrogen gas, oxygen gas, and water vapor. No one should ever attempt this reaction\u2014it can be very explosive. In 1947, there was a major ammonium nitrate explosion in Texas City, Texas, and, in 2013, there was another major explosion in West, Texas. In the last 100 years, there were nearly 30 similar disasters worldwide, resulting in the loss of numerous lives. In this oxidation-reduction reaction, the nitrogen in the nitrate ion oxidizes the nitrogen in the ammonium ion. Nitrous oxide, shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso\">(Figure 3.8.2)<\/a>, is a colorless gas possessing a mild, pleasing odor and a sweet taste. It finds application as an anesthetic for minor operations, especially in dentistry, under the name \u201claughing gas.\u201d<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model of a molecule shows two blue atoms labeled \u201cN\u201d bonded to one another and to one red atom labeled \u201cO.\u201d Two Lewis structures are also shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen atom. The second nitrogen atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen atom. The second nitrogen atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom that has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"975\" height=\"133\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.2 -\u00a0Nitrous oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O, is an anesthetic that has these molecular (left) and resonance (right) structures.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp180929296\">Low yields of nitric oxide, NO, form when heating nitrogen and oxygen together. NO also forms when lightning passes through the air during thunderstorms. Burning ammonia is the commercial method of preparing nitric oxide. In the laboratory, the reduction of nitric acid is the best method for preparing nitric oxide. When copper reacts with dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide is the principal reduction product:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm42181536\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{3Cu}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{8HNO}}_{3}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2NO}\\left(g\\right)+\\text{3Cu}{\\left({\\text{NO}}_{3}\\right)}_{2}\\left(aq\\right)+{\\text{4H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp194327280\">Gaseous nitric oxide is the most thermally stable of the nitrogen oxides and is the simplest known thermally stable molecule with an unpaired electron. It is one of the air pollutants generated by internal combustion engines, resulting from the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen during the combustion process.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp52451792\">At room temperature, nitric oxide is a colorless gas consisting of diatomic molecules. As is often the case with molecules that contain an unpaired electron, two molecules combine to form a dimer by pairing their unpaired electrons to form a bond. Liquid and solid NO both contain N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub> dimers, like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2\">(Figure 3.8.3)<\/a>. Most substances with unpaired electrons exhibit color by absorbing visible light; however, NO is colorless because the absorption of light is not in the visible region of the spectrum.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows a number two next to a nitrogen atom with a lone electron and a lone pair of electrons. The nitrogen atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another. Each is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"650\" height=\"147\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.3 -\u00a0This shows the equilibrium between NO and N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>. The molecule, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>, absorbs light.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp124712112\">Cooling a mixture of equal parts nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide to \u221221 \u00b0C produces dinitrogen trioxide, a blue liquid consisting of N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub> molecules (shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2\">(Figure 3.8.4)<\/a>). Dinitrogen trioxide exists only in the liquid and solid states. When heated, it reverts to a mixture of NO and NO<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model of a molecule shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d bonded to one another and to three red atoms labeled, \u201cO.\u201d Two Lewis structures are also shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows two nitrogen atoms that are single bonded to one another. The left nitrogen is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen with three lone pairs of electrons. The right nitrogen has one lone pair of electrons and is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows two nitrogen atoms that are single bonded to one another. The right nitrogen is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right nitrogen has one lone pair of electrons and is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"975\" height=\"211\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.4 -\u00a0Dinitrogen trioxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, only exists in liquid or solid states and has these molecular (left) and resonance (right) structures.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp82359632\">It is possible to prepare nitrogen dioxide in the laboratory by heating the nitrate of a heavy metal, or by the reduction of concentrated nitric acid with copper metal, as shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2\">(Figure 3.8.5)<\/a>. Commercially, it is possible to prepare nitrogen dioxide by oxidizing nitric oxide with air.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three photos are shown and connected by right-facing arrows. The left image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a colorless solution and a wire held above it. The middle image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a wire submerged in a pale green liquid and emitting a light brown gas. The right image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a wire submerged in a dark green liquid and emitting a brown gas.\" width=\"975\" height=\"340\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.5 -\u00a0The reaction of copper metal with concentrated HNO<sub>3<\/sub>\u00a0produces a solution of Cu(NO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0and brown fumes of NO<sub>2<\/sub>. (credit: modification of work by Mark Ott)<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The nitrogen dioxide molecule (illustrated in <\/span><a class=\"autogenerated-content\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4\">(Figure 3.8.6)<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) contains an unpaired electron, which is responsible for its color and paramagnetism. It is also responsible for the dimerization of NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. At low pressures or at high temperatures, nitrogen dioxide has a deep brown color that is due to the presence of the NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> molecule. At low temperatures, the color almost entirely disappears as dinitrogen tetraoxide, N<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">O<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">4<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, forms. At room temperature, an equilibrium exists:<\/span>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp190363104\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{2NO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightleftharpoons$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{N}}_{2}{\\text{O}}_{4}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{5em}{0ex}}{K}_{P}=6.86\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"836\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two space-filling models and two Lewis structures are shown. The left space-filling model shows a blue atom labeled, \u201cN,\u201d bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO,\u201d while the right space-filling model shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d each bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO.\u201d The left Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone electron single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right structure, which is connected by a double-headed arrow to the first, is a diagram showing a similar Lewis structure, but the position of the double bond and the number of electron pairs on the oxygen atoms have switched.\" width=\"836\" height=\"509\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.6 -\u00a0The molecular and resonance structures for nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2<\/sub>, left) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub>, right) are shown.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp120707200\">Dinitrogen pentaoxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub> (illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5\">(Figure 3.8.7)<\/a>), is a white solid that is formed by the dehydration of nitric acid by phosphorus(V) oxide (tetraphosphorus decoxide):<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp77732832\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{P}}_{4}{\\text{O}}_{10}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{4HNO}}_{3}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{4HPO}}_{3}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{2N}}_{2}{\\text{O}}_{5}\\left(s\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp30681184\">It is unstable above room temperature, decomposing to N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub> and O<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5\" class=\"scaled-down\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"794\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model and a Lewis structure are shown. The space-filling model shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d each bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO,\u201d with another red atom labeled, \u201cO,\u201d in between them. The Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons in a downward position and double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons in an upward position. This nitrogen is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The oxygen atom is single bonded to another nitrogen atom which is single bonded to another oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons in an upward position. The second nitrogen atom is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons in a downward position.\" width=\"794\" height=\"258\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3.8.7 -\u00a0This image shows the molecular structure and one resonance structure of a molecule of dinitrogen pentaoxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5.<\/sub><\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp68612624\">The oxides of nitrogen(III), nitrogen(IV), and nitrogen(V) react with water and form nitrogen-containing oxyacids. Nitrogen(III) oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, is the anhydride of nitrous acid; HNO<sub>2<\/sub> forms when N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub> reacts with water. There are no stable oxyacids containing nitrogen with an oxidation state of 4+; therefore, nitrogen(IV) oxide, NO<sub>2<\/sub>, disproportionates in one of two ways when it reacts with water. In cold water, a mixture of HNO<sub>2<\/sub> and HNO<sub>3<\/sub> forms. At higher temperatures, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> and NO will form. Nitrogen(V) oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>, is the anhydride of nitric acid; HNO<sub>3<\/sub> is produced when N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub> reacts with water:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp46021216\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{N}}_{2}{\\text{O}}_{5}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{2HNO}}_{3}\\left(aq\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp245790208\">The nitrogen oxides exhibit extensive oxidation-reduction behavior. Nitrous oxide resembles oxygen in its behavior when heated with combustible substances. N<sub>2<\/sub>O is a strong oxidizing agent that decomposes when heated to form nitrogen and oxygen. Because one-third of the gas liberated is oxygen, nitrous oxide supports combustion better than air (one-fifth oxygen). A glowing splinter bursts into flame when thrust into a bottle of this gas. Nitric oxide acts both as an oxidizing agent and as a reducing agent. For example:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp89011632\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{oxidizing agent:}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{P}}_{4}\\left(s\\right)+\\text{6NO}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{P}}_{4}{\\text{O}}_{6}\\left(s\\right)+{\\text{3N}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp62382032\" data-type=\"equation\">\\(\\text{reducing agent:}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+\\text{2NO}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{2ClNO}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp32170576\">Nitrogen dioxide (or dinitrogen tetraoxide) is a good oxidizing agent. For example:<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp458544\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{NO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+\\text{CO}\\left(g\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{NO}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{CO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp151564224\" data-type=\"equation\">\\({\\text{NO}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+\\text{2HCl}\\left(aq\\right)\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}\\text{NO}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{Cl}}_{2}\\left(g\\right)+{\\text{H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(l\\right)\\)<\/div>\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Key Concepts and Summary<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp67053552\">Nitrogen exhibits oxidation states ranging from 3\u2212 to 5+. Because of the stability of the N\u2261N triple bond, it requires a great deal of energy to make compounds from molecular nitrogen. Active metals such as the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. Nitrogen oxides and nitrogen hydrides are also important substances.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">End of Chapter Exercises<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp29787040\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm26371056\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp87897568\">Draw the Lewis structures for each of the following:<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm34544192\">(1a) NH<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp83218288\">(1b) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp91492368\">(1c) \\({\\text{NH}}_{2}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp213621152\">(1d) NF<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp16201152\">(1e) \\({\\text{N}}_{3}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(a) NH<\/span><sup style=\"text-align: initial\">2\u2212<\/sup><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp121091728\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp208966864\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a hydrogen atom. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a two negative sign.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1a_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a hydrogen atom. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a two negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (b) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub>:<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp125060640\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another and each single bonded to two fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1b_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another and each single bonded to two fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (c) \\({\\text{NH}}_{2}{?-}^{\\text{\u2212}}:\\)<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp38448752\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1c_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (d) NF<sub>3<\/sub>:<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp88863712\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom, with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to three fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1d_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom, with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to three fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (e) \\({\\text{N}?-}_{3}{}^{\\text{\u2212}}:\\)<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp128360176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Three Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons triple bonded to a second nitrogen which is single bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen has three lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The middle structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pair of electrons single bonded to a second nitrogen which is triple bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen which has one lone pair of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen which is double bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen atom has two lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1e_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons triple bonded to a second nitrogen which is single bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen has three lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The middle structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pair of electrons single bonded to a second nitrogen which is triple bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen which has one lone pair of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen which is double bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen atom has two lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm31681344\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp237130032\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm27850272\">For each of the following, indicate the hybridization of the nitrogen atom (for \\({\\text{N}}_{3}{}^{\\text{\u2212}},\\) the central nitrogen).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm49565568\">(2a) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28704896\">(2b) \\({\\text{NH}}_{2}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp52177392\">(2c) NF<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp88571680\">(2d) \\({\\text{N}}_{3}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp14942656\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp38118720\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp23217968\">(3) Explain how ammonia can function both as a Br\u00f8nsted base and as a Lewis base.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ammonia acts as a Br\u00f8nsted base because it readily accepts protons and as a Lewis base in that it has an electron pair to donate.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp78810976\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\nBr\u00f8nsted base: \\({\\text{NH}}_{3}+{\\text{H}}_{3}{\\text{O}}^{+}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{\\text{NH}}_{4}{}^{+}+{\\text{H}}_{2}\\text{O}\\)\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> Lewis base: \\({\\text{2NH}}_{3}+{\\text{Ag}}^{+}\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}$\\rightarrow$\\phantom{\\rule{0.2em}{0ex}}{{\\text{[H}}_{3}\\text{N}-\\text{Ag}-{\\text{NH}}_{3}\\right]}^{+}]\\)\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp2884576\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp170700944\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp122339584\">Determine the oxidation state of nitrogen in each of the following. You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding for relevant examples.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp208419200\">(4a) NCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm122957024\">(4b) ClNO<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp59467904\">(4c) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm31311152\">(4d) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp343503680\">(4e) \\({\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm5304144\">(4f) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp248979136\">(4g) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp13179472\">(4h) \\({\\text{NO}}_{3}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp194583584\">(4i) HNO<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp57609536\">(4j) HNO<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp9296992\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp215389888\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp50791824\">For each of the following, draw the Lewis structure, predict the ONO bond angle, and give the hybridization of the nitrogen. You may wish to review the chapters on chemical bonding and advanced theories of covalent bonding for relevant examples.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28476992\">(5a) NO<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp126098992\">(5b) \\({\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{-}\\)<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm30858912\">(5c) \\({\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{+}\\)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(a) NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">:<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp125545904\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp121558896\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a single electron double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5a_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a single electron double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em><sup>2<\/sup> hybridized. The molecule has a bent geometry with an ONO bond angle of approximately 120\u00b0.\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (b) \\({\\text{NO}}_{2}{^-}^{\\text{\u2212}}:\\)<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp21294016\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. Each structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pair of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5b_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. Each structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pair of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em><sup>2<\/sup> hybridized. The molecule has a bent geometry with an ONO bond angle slightly less than 120\u00b0.\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> (c) \\({\\text{NO}}_{2}{}^{\\text{+}}:\\)<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span>\r\n\r\n<span id=\"fs-idp20652368\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom double bonded on both sides to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons each. The structure is surrounded by brackets and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5c_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom double bonded on both sides to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons each. The structure is surrounded by brackets and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span>\r\n\r\n<span data-type=\"newline\">\r\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em> hybridized. The molecule has a linear geometry with an ONO bond angle of 180\u00b0.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp114788336\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm35419152\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm886624\">(6) How many grams of gaseous ammonia will the reaction of 3.0 g hydrogen gas and 3.0 g of nitrogen gas produce?<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm46455776\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp48525360\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp69216848\">(7) Although PF<sub>5<\/sub> and AsF<sub>5<\/sub> are stable, nitrogen does not form NF<sub>5<\/sub> molecules. Explain this difference among members of the same group.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Nitrogen cannot form a NF<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">5<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> molecule because it does not have <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" data-effect=\"italics\">d<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> orbitals to bond with the additional two fluorine atoms.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp88710064\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp3133536\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp20666880\">(8) The equivalence point for the titration of a 25.00-mL sample of CsOH solution with 0.1062 <em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em> HNO<sub>3<\/sub> is at 35.27 mL. What is the concentration of the CsOH solution?<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<dl id=\"fs-idp203631920\">\r\n \t<dt>[pb_glossary id=\"3046\"]nitrogen fixation[\/pb_glossary]<\/dt>\r\n \t<dd id=\"fs-idp48542544\">formation of nitrogen compounds from molecular nitrogen<\/dd>\r\n<\/dl>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the properties, preparation, and uses of nitrogen<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp100617568\">Most pure nitrogen comes from the fractional distillation of liquid air. The atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen by volume. This means there are more than 20 million tons of nitrogen over every square mile of the earth\u2019s surface. Nitrogen is a component of proteins and of the genetic material (DNA\/RNA) of all plants and animals.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp20917824\">Under ordinary conditions, nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It boils at 77 K and freezes at 63 K. Liquid nitrogen is a useful coolant because it is inexpensive and has a low boiling point. Nitrogen is very unreactive because of the very strong triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. The only common reactions at room temperature occur with lithium to form Li<sub>3<\/sub>N, with certain transition metal complexes, and with hydrogen or oxygen in nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The general lack of reactivity of nitrogen makes the remarkable ability of some bacteria to synthesize nitrogen compounds using atmospheric nitrogen gas as the source one of the most exciting chemical events on our planet. This process is one type of <span data-type=\"term\">nitrogen fixation<\/span>. In this case, nitrogen fixation is the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals. Nitrogen fixation also occurs when lightning passes through air, causing molecular nitrogen to react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, which are then carried down to the soil.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp90361632\" class=\"chemistry everyday-life\" data-type=\"note\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Nitrogen Fixation<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idm122679488\">All living organisms require nitrogen compounds for survival. Unfortunately, most of these organisms cannot absorb nitrogen from its most abundant source\u2014the atmosphere. Atmospheric nitrogen consists of N<sub>2<\/sub> molecules, which are very unreactive due to the strong nitrogen-nitrogen triple bond. However, a few organisms can overcome this problem through a process known as nitrogen fixation, illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen\">(Figure 3.8.1)<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<figure style=\"width: 1199px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Nitrogen.jpg\" alt=\"A flow chart is shown. A cow, grass, and a tree are shown in the center of the diagram. Downward-facing arrows lead from them to the phrase, \u201cDecomposers ( aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and fungi ).\u201d A downward-facing arrow leads to a space-filing model with one blue atom bonded to four white atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cAmmonium ( N H subscript 4 ).\u201d A right-facing arrow leads from this molecule to another molecule that is composed of a blue atom bonded to two red atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cNitrites ( N O subscript 2 superscript negative sign ).\u201d Below this arrow is a picture of a circle with two rod-shaped structures. It is labeled, \u201cNitrifying bacteria.\u201d Above the nitrites label is an upward-facing arrow leading to a blue atom single-bonded to three red atoms. The model is labeled, \u201cNitrates ( N O subscript 3 superscript negative sign ).\u201d Next to this arrow is a picture of a circle with two rod-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrifying bacteria.\u201d The nitrates label has a double-headed, upward-facing arrow that leads to two pictures: one of the roots of the tree which is labeled, \u201cAssimilation,\u201d and one leading to a picture of a circle with four oval-shaped structures labeled, \u201cDenitrifying bacteria.\u201d A left-facing arrow leads from this bacteria to a molecule made up of two atoms triple-bonded together and labeled, \u201cAtmospheric nitrogen ( N subscript 2 ).\u201d This molecule is connected to a downward-facing, double-headed arrow that leads to an image showing yellow filaments on a black background and a picture of a circle with four rod-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrogen-fixing soil bacteria.\u201d An arrow leads from a picture of a plant\u2019s roots to the yellow filaments and then to a photo of a circle with four oval-shaped structures labeled, \u201cNitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules.\u201d\" width=\"1199\" height=\"1127\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.1 &#8211; All living organisms require nitrogen. A few microorganisms are able to process atmospheric nitrogen using nitrogen fixation. (credit \u201croots\u201d: modification of work by the United States Department of Agriculture; credit \u201croot nodules\u201d: modification of work by Louisa Howard)<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm16624624\">Nitrogen fixation is the process where organisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into biologically useful chemicals. To date, the only known kind of biological organisms capable of nitrogen fixation is microorganisms. These organisms employ enzymes called nitrogenases, which contain iron and molybdenum. Many of these microorganisms live in a symbiotic relationship with plants, with the best-known example being the presence of rhizobia in the root nodules of legumes.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp193317744\">Large volumes of atmospheric nitrogen are necessary for making ammonia\u2014the principal starting material used for the preparation of large quantities of other nitrogen-containing compounds. Most other uses for elemental nitrogen depend on its inactivity. It is helpful when a chemical process requires an inert atmosphere. Canned foods and luncheon meats cannot oxidize in a pure nitrogen atmosphere, so they retain a better flavor and color, and spoil less rapidly when sealed in nitrogen instead of air. This technology allows fresh produce to be available year-round, regardless of the growing season.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp19296512\">There are compounds with nitrogen in all of their oxidation states from 3\u2212 to 5+. Much of the chemistry of nitrogen involves oxidation-reduction reactions. Some active metals (such as alkali metals and alkaline earth metals) can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. In the remainder of this section, we will examine nitrogen-oxygen chemistry.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp79367584\">There are well-characterized nitrogen oxides in which nitrogen exhibits each of its positive oxidation numbers from 1+ to 5+. When ammonium nitrate is carefully heated, nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide) and water vapor form. Stronger heating generates nitrogen gas, oxygen gas, and water vapor. No one should ever attempt this reaction\u2014it can be very explosive. In 1947, there was a major ammonium nitrate explosion in Texas City, Texas, and, in 2013, there was another major explosion in West, Texas. In the last 100 years, there were nearly 30 similar disasters worldwide, resulting in the loss of numerous lives. In this oxidation-reduction reaction, the nitrogen in the nitrate ion oxidizes the nitrogen in the ammonium ion. Nitrous oxide, shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso\">(Figure 3.8.2)<\/a>, is a colorless gas possessing a mild, pleasing odor and a sweet taste. It finds application as an anesthetic for minor operations, especially in dentistry, under the name \u201claughing gas.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model of a molecule shows two blue atoms labeled \u201cN\u201d bonded to one another and to one red atom labeled \u201cO.\u201d Two Lewis structures are also shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen atom. The second nitrogen atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen atom. The second nitrogen atom is single bonded to an oxygen atom that has three lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"975\" height=\"133\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.2 &#8211;\u00a0Nitrous oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O, is an anesthetic that has these molecular (left) and resonance (right) structures.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp180929296\">Low yields of nitric oxide, NO, form when heating nitrogen and oxygen together. NO also forms when lightning passes through the air during thunderstorms. Burning ammonia is the commercial method of preparing nitric oxide. In the laboratory, the reduction of nitric acid is the best method for preparing nitric oxide. When copper reacts with dilute nitric acid, nitric oxide is the principal reduction product:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm42181536\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-365ca92f737266c5298025e8583c6ba5_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#67;&#117;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#56;&#72;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#67;&#117;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#52;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"487\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp194327280\">Gaseous nitric oxide is the most thermally stable of the nitrogen oxides and is the simplest known thermally stable molecule with an unpaired electron. It is one of the air pollutants generated by internal combustion engines, resulting from the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen during the combustion process.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp52451792\">At room temperature, nitric oxide is a colorless gas consisting of diatomic molecules. As is often the case with molecules that contain an unpaired electron, two molecules combine to form a dimer by pairing their unpaired electrons to form a bond. Liquid and solid NO both contain N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub> dimers, like that shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2\">(Figure 3.8.3)<\/a>. Most substances with unpaired electrons exhibit color by absorbing visible light; however, NO is colorless because the absorption of light is not in the visible region of the spectrum.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<figure style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O2-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows a number two next to a nitrogen atom with a lone electron and a lone pair of electrons. The nitrogen atom is double-bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another. Each is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"650\" height=\"147\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.3 &#8211;\u00a0This shows the equilibrium between NO and N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>. The molecule, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>2<\/sub>, absorbs light.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp124712112\">Cooling a mixture of equal parts nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide to \u221221 \u00b0C produces dinitrogen trioxide, a blue liquid consisting of N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub> molecules (shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2\">(Figure 3.8.4)<\/a>). Dinitrogen trioxide exists only in the liquid and solid states. When heated, it reverts to a mixture of NO and NO<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_molecreso2-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model of a molecule shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d bonded to one another and to three red atoms labeled, \u201cO.\u201d Two Lewis structures are also shown and connected by a double-headed arrow. The left image shows two nitrogen atoms that are single bonded to one another. The left nitrogen is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen with three lone pairs of electrons. The right nitrogen has one lone pair of electrons and is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right image shows two nitrogen atoms that are single bonded to one another. The right nitrogen is double bonded to an oxygen atom that has two lone pairs of electrons and single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right nitrogen has one lone pair of electrons and is double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons.\" width=\"975\" height=\"211\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.4 &#8211;\u00a0Dinitrogen trioxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, only exists in liquid or solid states and has these molecular (left) and resonance (right) structures.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp82359632\">It is possible to prepare nitrogen dioxide in the laboratory by heating the nitrate of a heavy metal, or by the reduction of concentrated nitric acid with copper metal, as shown in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2\">(Figure 3.8.5)<\/a>. Commercially, it is possible to prepare nitrogen dioxide by oxidizing nitric oxide with air.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_CuHNO32NO2-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three photos are shown and connected by right-facing arrows. The left image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a colorless solution and a wire held above it. The middle image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a wire submerged in a pale green liquid and emitting a light brown gas. The right image shows a test tube in a clamp that holds a wire submerged in a dark green liquid and emitting a brown gas.\" width=\"975\" height=\"340\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.5 &#8211;\u00a0The reaction of copper metal with concentrated HNO<sub>3<\/sub>\u00a0produces a solution of Cu(NO<sub>3<\/sub>)<sub>2<\/sub>\u00a0and brown fumes of NO<sub>2<\/sub>. (credit: modification of work by Mark Ott)<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">The nitrogen dioxide molecule (illustrated in <\/span><a class=\"autogenerated-content\" style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4\">(Figure 3.8.6)<\/a><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">) contains an unpaired electron, which is responsible for its color and paramagnetism. It is also responsible for the dimerization of NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">. At low pressures or at high temperatures, nitrogen dioxide has a deep brown color that is due to the presence of the NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> molecule. At low temperatures, the color almost entirely disappears as dinitrogen tetraoxide, N<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">O<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">4<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">, forms. At room temperature, an equilibrium exists:<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp190363104\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-d1d94fabcad53e2929b047385ba9a4fd_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#104;&#97;&#114;&#112;&#111;&#111;&#110;&#115;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#53;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#75;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#80;&#125;&#61;&#54;&#46;&#56;&#54;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"339\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0 \u00a0<\/em><\/div>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<figure style=\"width: 836px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O4-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two space-filling models and two Lewis structures are shown. The left space-filling model shows a blue atom labeled, \u201cN,\u201d bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO,\u201d while the right space-filling model shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d each bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO.\u201d The left Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with one lone electron single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The right structure, which is connected by a double-headed arrow to the first, is a diagram showing a similar Lewis structure, but the position of the double bond and the number of electron pairs on the oxygen atoms have switched.\" width=\"836\" height=\"509\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.6 &#8211;\u00a0The molecular and resonance structures for nitrogen dioxide (NO<sub>2<\/sub>, left) and dinitrogen tetraoxide (N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub>, right) are shown.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp120707200\">Dinitrogen pentaoxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub> (illustrated in <a class=\"autogenerated-content\" href=\"#CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5\">(Figure 3.8.7)<\/a>), is a white solid that is formed by the dehydration of nitric acid by phosphorus(V) oxide (tetraphosphorus decoxide):<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp77732832\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-76128be89de84c80d45de6b3a8340201_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#80;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#52;&#72;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#52;&#72;&#80;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#53;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"380\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp30681184\">It is unstable above room temperature, decomposing to N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub> and O<sub>2<\/sub>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5\" class=\"scaled-down\">\n<figure style=\"width: 794px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_N2O5-1.jpg\" alt=\"A space-filling model and a Lewis structure are shown. The space-filling model shows two blue atoms labeled, \u201cN,\u201d each bonded to two red atoms labeled, \u201cO,\u201d with another red atom labeled, \u201cO,\u201d in between them. The Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons in a downward position and double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons in an upward position. This nitrogen is single bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons. The oxygen atom is single bonded to another nitrogen atom which is single bonded to another oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons in an upward position. The second nitrogen atom is also double bonded to an oxygen atom with two lone pairs of electrons in a downward position.\" width=\"794\" height=\"258\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3.8.7 &#8211;\u00a0This image shows the molecular structure and one resonance structure of a molecule of dinitrogen pentaoxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5.<\/sub><\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp68612624\">The oxides of nitrogen(III), nitrogen(IV), and nitrogen(V) react with water and form nitrogen-containing oxyacids. Nitrogen(III) oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub>, is the anhydride of nitrous acid; HNO<sub>2<\/sub> forms when N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub> reacts with water. There are no stable oxyacids containing nitrogen with an oxidation state of 4+; therefore, nitrogen(IV) oxide, NO<sub>2<\/sub>, disproportionates in one of two ways when it reacts with water. In cold water, a mixture of HNO<sub>2<\/sub> and HNO<sub>3<\/sub> forms. At higher temperatures, HNO<sub>3<\/sub> and NO will form. Nitrogen(V) oxide, N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub>, is the anhydride of nitric acid; HNO<sub>3<\/sub> is produced when N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub> reacts with water:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp46021216\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-b88641e311a5d7126d3301715144422b_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#53;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"265\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp245790208\">The nitrogen oxides exhibit extensive oxidation-reduction behavior. Nitrous oxide resembles oxygen in its behavior when heated with combustible substances. N<sub>2<\/sub>O is a strong oxidizing agent that decomposes when heated to form nitrogen and oxygen. Because one-third of the gas liberated is oxygen, nitrous oxide supports combustion better than air (one-fifth oxygen). A glowing splinter bursts into flame when thrust into a bottle of this gas. Nitric oxide acts both as an oxidizing agent and as a reducing agent. For example:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp89011632\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-3faf2b298bc7b05c636209aea0825489_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#111;&#120;&#105;&#100;&#105;&#122;&#105;&#110;&#103;&#32;&#97;&#103;&#101;&#110;&#116;&#58;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#80;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#54;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#80;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#54;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#115;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"424\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp62382032\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-b620868cbd9b99b724c937e3d219e322_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#114;&#101;&#100;&#117;&#99;&#105;&#110;&#103;&#32;&#97;&#103;&#101;&#110;&#116;&#58;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#67;&#108;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"360\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp32170576\">Nitrogen dioxide (or dinitrogen tetraoxide) is a good oxidizing agent. For example:<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp458544\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-54a94f5f93d4f000b8442dddb7351e56_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"293\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"equation\"><em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp151564224\" data-type=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-7494312db63e58ffbaedc1ed82ea984d_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#72;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#97;&#113;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#67;&#108;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#103;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#108;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"385\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Key Concepts and Summary<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp67053552\">Nitrogen exhibits oxidation states ranging from 3\u2212 to 5+. Because of the stability of the N\u2261N triple bond, it requires a great deal of energy to make compounds from molecular nitrogen. Active metals such as the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals can reduce nitrogen to form metal nitrides. Nitrogen oxides and nitrogen hydrides are also important substances.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">End of Chapter Exercises<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp29787040\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm26371056\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp87897568\">Draw the Lewis structures for each of the following:<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm34544192\">(1a) NH<sup>2\u2212<\/sup><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp83218288\">(1b) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp91492368\">(1c) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-53e3867a89eafd217946d895863c2e9b_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"44\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp213621152\">(1d) NF<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp16201152\">(1e) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-49ee3227482f3f8b28f7e8dfba51d77a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"31\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(a) NH<\/span><sup style=\"text-align: initial\">2\u2212<\/sup><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">:<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp121091728\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp208966864\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a hydrogen atom. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a two negative sign.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1a_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pairs of electrons single bonded to a hydrogen atom. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a two negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (b) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub>:<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp125060640\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another and each single bonded to two fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1b_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows two nitrogen atoms, each with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to one another and each single bonded to two fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (c) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-cc756ae80156bdbf82ac566be68c1438_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#63;&#45;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#8722;&#125;&#125;&#58;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"66\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp38448752\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1c_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons single bonded to two hydrogen atoms. The structure is surrounded by brackets. Outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (d) NF<sub>3<\/sub>:<span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp88863712\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom, with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to three fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1d_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom, with one lone pair of electrons, single bonded to three fluorine atoms. Each fluorine atom has three lone pairs of electrons.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (e) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-1602bbfd27b8768263a901bb1f9250f6_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#63;&#45;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#8722;&#125;&#125;&#58;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"53\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp128360176\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Three Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons triple bonded to a second nitrogen which is single bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen has three lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The middle structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pair of electrons single bonded to a second nitrogen which is triple bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen which has one lone pair of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen which is double bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen atom has two lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise1e_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons triple bonded to a second nitrogen which is single bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen has three lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The middle structure shows a nitrogen atom with three lone pair of electrons single bonded to a second nitrogen which is triple bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen which has one lone pair of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The right structure shows a nitrogen atom with two lone pairs of electrons double bonded to a second nitrogen which is double bonded to a third nitrogen. The third nitrogen atom has two lone pairs of electrons. The entire structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm31681344\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp237130032\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm27850272\">For each of the following, indicate the hybridization of the nitrogen atom (for <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-5460f6c1f11d2cf454079099cd19089d_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#8722;&#125;&#125;&#44;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/> the central nitrogen).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm49565568\">(2a) N<sub>2<\/sub>F<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28704896\">(2b) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-53e3867a89eafd217946d895863c2e9b_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"44\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp52177392\">(2c) NF<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp88571680\">(2d) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-49ee3227482f3f8b28f7e8dfba51d77a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"31\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp14942656\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp38118720\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp23217968\">(3) Explain how ammonia can function both as a Br\u00f8nsted base and as a Lewis base.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Ammonia acts as a Br\u00f8nsted base because it readily accepts protons and as a Lewis base in that it has an electron pair to donate.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><em>\u00a0\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp78810976\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p>Br\u00f8nsted base: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-b31f7915a9c2b505e59f388cc9cd02e0_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#79;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"229\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> Lewis base: <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-406d845f904b0d0186dad566595fe641_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#43;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#103;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#36;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#111;&#119;&#36;&#92;&#112;&#104;&#97;&#110;&#116;&#111;&#109;&#123;&#92;&#114;&#117;&#108;&#101;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#101;&#109;&#125;&#123;&#48;&#101;&#120;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#091;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#125;&#45;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#65;&#103;&#125;&#45;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#72;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#093;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#093;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"20\" width=\"269\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp2884576\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp170700944\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp122339584\">Determine the oxidation state of nitrogen in each of the following. You may wish to review the chapter on chemical bonding for relevant examples.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp208419200\">(4a) NCl<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm122957024\">(4b) ClNO<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp59467904\">(4c) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>5<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm31311152\">(4d) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp343503680\">(4e) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-978888b0c03481e3b3d8c47759096b40_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"45\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm5304144\">(4f) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<sub>4<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp248979136\">(4g) N<sub>2<\/sub>O<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp13179472\">(4h) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-01060acd10d5f637a36ecf26ebbe5a65_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#51;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"45\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp194583584\">(4i) HNO<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp57609536\">(4j) HNO<sub>3<\/sub><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp9296992\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp215389888\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp50791824\">For each of the following, draw the Lewis structure, predict the ONO bond angle, and give the hybridization of the nitrogen. You may wish to review the chapters on chemical bonding and advanced theories of covalent bonding for relevant examples.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28476992\">(5a) NO<sub>2<\/sub><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp126098992\">(5b) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-978888b0c03481e3b3d8c47759096b40_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#45;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"45\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm30858912\">(5c) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-10e0f77bb7e99d8700204fe69697ebb8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#43;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"45\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">(a) NO<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">2<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">:<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp125545904\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\" data-type=\"solution\">\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp121558896\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a single electron double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5a_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a single electron double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pairs of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em><sup>2<\/sup> hybridized. The molecule has a bent geometry with an ONO bond angle of approximately 120\u00b0.<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (b) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-42c8104c4dcb69125f0a7b1d4700c1a3_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#94;&#45;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#8722;&#125;&#125;&#58;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"56\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp21294016\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. Each structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pair of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5b_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"Two Lewis structures are shown and connected by double-headed arrows in between. Each structure is surrounded by brackets, and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign. The left structure shows a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons double bonded to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons. The nitrogen atom is also single bonded to an oxygen atom with three lone pair of electrons. The right structure is a mirror image of the left structure.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em><sup>2<\/sup> hybridized. The molecule has a bent geometry with an ONO bond angle slightly less than 120\u00b0.<\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> (c) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f8dfc8c3782bbe2f39122c3fc82f26c4_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#78;&#79;&#125;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#50;&#125;&#123;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#43;&#125;&#125;&#58;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"55\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span><\/p>\n<p><span id=\"fs-idp20652368\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom double bonded on both sides to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons each. The structure is surrounded by brackets and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/989\/2020\/04\/CNX_Chem_18_07_Exercise5c_img-1.jpg\" alt=\"This Lewis structure shows a nitrogen atom double bonded on both sides to an oxygen atom which has two lone pairs of electrons each. The structure is surrounded by brackets and outside and superscript to the brackets is a negative sign.\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<p><span data-type=\"newline\"><br \/>\n<\/span> Nitrogen is <em data-effect=\"italics\">sp<\/em> hybridized. The molecule has a linear geometry with an ONO bond angle of 180\u00b0.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp114788336\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm35419152\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm886624\">(6) How many grams of gaseous ammonia will the reaction of 3.0 g hydrogen gas and 3.0 g of nitrogen gas produce?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm46455776\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp48525360\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp69216848\">(7) Although PF<sub>5<\/sub> and AsF<sub>5<\/sub> are stable, nitrogen does not form NF<sub>5<\/sub> molecules. Explain this difference among members of the same group.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><em>Solution<\/em><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\">Nitrogen cannot form a NF<\/span><sub style=\"text-align: initial\">5<\/sub><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> molecule because it does not have <\/span><em style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\" data-effect=\"italics\">d<\/em><span style=\"text-align: initial;font-size: 1em\"> orbitals to bond with the additional two fluorine atoms.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp88710064\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp3133536\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp20666880\">(8) The equivalence point for the titration of a 25.00-mL sample of CsOH solution with 0.1062 <em data-effect=\"italics\">M<\/em> HNO<sub>3<\/sub> is at 35.27 mL. What is the concentration of the CsOH solution?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\" data-type=\"glossary\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl id=\"fs-idp203631920\">\n<dt><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_2079_3046\">nitrogen fixation<\/a><\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-idp48542544\">formation of nitrogen compounds from molecular nitrogen<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_2079_3046\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_2079_3046\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>formation of nitrogen compounds from molecular nitrogen<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":801,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2079","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":2018,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2079","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/801"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2079\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3609,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2079\/revisions\/3609"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/2018"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2079\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2079"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2079"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2079"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/inorganicchemistrychem250\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2079"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}