Sandbox

Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant male ideal within a particular culture at a particular time (Connell, 1995). David and Brannon (1976) describe four rules for establishing masculinity:

1. No Sissy Stuff: anything that even remotely hints of femininity is prohibited. A real man must avoid any behavior or characteristic associated with women;

2. Be a Big Wheel: masculinity is measured by success, power, and the admiration of others. One must possess wealth, fame, and status to be considered manly;

3. Be a Sturdy Oak: manliness requires rationality, toughness, and self‐ reliance. A man must remain calm in any situation, show no emotion, and admit no weakness;

4. Give ’em Hell: men must exude an aura of daring and aggression, and must be willing to take risks, to “go for it” even when reason and fear suggest otherwise.

Hegemonic masculinity operates as a gender norm, and it is against this norm that the many different types of lived masculinities, including gay, racialized and ethnic masculinities, are invited to measure themselves. When someone says, “Be a man!” they typically evoke an ideal of masculinity which is dominant in that specific context. As Garlick (2010) argues, this ideal will change depending on the context but it always takes the same form:

the hegemonic form of masculinity in any particular social context is always the answer to a question—a question of what is needed to maintain control. The answer to this question, which will often involve some form of either physical strength or mental strength (e.g., violence or rationality), will depend on the historical, social, and cultural context in which it is asked. What is crucial is the belief that ‘‘to be a man’’ requires being in control; it is this contention itself that is hegemonic.

Hegemonic masculinity is paralleled by what Connell (1995) refers to as emphasized femininity.  She argues that in a heteronormative and patriarchal society, the dominant styles of femininity are those which emphasize women’s compliance with their subordination to men including characteristics of supportiveness, nurturing, empathy, enthusiasm and sexual attractiveness.

Emphasized femininity values ways of expressing femininity that complement hegemonic heterosexual masculinity and therefore displaying traits that either challenge or mimic male dominance is often stigmatized. “Practices and characteristics that are stigmatized and sanctioned if embodied by women include having sexual desire for other women, being promiscuous, “frigid”, or sexually inaccessible, and being aggressive” (Schippers, 2007). On this basis, Schippers (2007) identifies a series of pariah femininities based on specific types of non-compliance: the lesbian who is attracted to women instead of men, the “bitch” who takes charge and challenges authority, the “bad-ass girl” who is physically violent, or the “slut” or “tease” who refuses exclusive sexual relationships with men or male control of their sexuality.

There is no scientific consensus regarding the exact reasons why an individual holds a heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual orientation (APA, 2008). Research, however, does present evidence showing that homosexuals and bisexuals are treated differently than heterosexuals in schools, the workplace, and the military. The 2021 update to the 2009 Canadian Climate Survey concluded that homophobia, biphobia, and transphobia remain rampant in Canadian schools with 62% of 2SLGBTQ respondents feeling unsafe at school,
compared to 11% of cisgender heterosexual students. Moreover, 2SLGBTQ Indigenous students were twice as likely (35%) to experience harassment based on their racialized identity than cisgender heterosexual Indigenous students (14%) (Taylor and Peter, 2022). This reflects the way that forms of inequality can intersect and reinforce one another, a topic we will discuss below.

Much of this discrimination is based on stereotypes, misinformation, and homophobia — an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals. Major policies to prevent discrimination based on sexual orientation have not come into effect until the last few years. In 2005, the federal government legalized same-sex marriage. The Civil Marriage Act now describes marriage in Canada in gender neutral terms: “Marriage, for civil purposes, is the lawful union of two persons to the exclusion of all others” (Civil Marriage Act, S.C. 2005, c. 33). The Canadian Human Rights Act was amended in 1996 to explicitly prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation, including the unequal treatment of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals. Organizations such as Egale Canada (Equality for Gays And Lesbians Everywhere) advocate for LGBT and LGBTQ2+ rights, establish gay pride organizations in Canadian communities, and promote gay-straight alliance support groups in schools. Sociologists frequently use the acronym LGBTQ2+, which stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or “questioning,” two spirited, plus related non-binary or minority sexual identity communities.

It is also well known that transgender and transsex individuals experience discrimination based on their gender identity. People who identify as transgender are twice as likely to experience assault or discrimination as non-transgender individuals; they are also one and a half times more likely to experience intimidation (National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, 2010; 2013). Organizations such as the Canadian Professional Association for Transgender Health (CPATH), Trans Pulse, and the National Center for Transgender Equality work to support and prevent, respond to, and end all types of violence against transgender, transsex, and homosexual individuals. These organizations hope that by educating the public about gender identity and empowering transgender and transsex individuals, this violence will end.

Peter, T., Campbell, C.P., & Taylor, C. (2021). Still in every class in every school:
Final report on the second climate survey on homophobia, biphobia, and
transphobia in Canadian schools. Key Takeaways. Toronto, ON: Egale
Canada Human Rights Trust.