{"id":134,"date":"2017-06-04T16:23:00","date_gmt":"2017-06-04T20:23:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/chapter\/observational-learning\/"},"modified":"2017-06-10T11:44:57","modified_gmt":"2017-06-10T15:44:57","slug":"observational-learning","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/chapter\/observational-learning\/","title":{"raw":"Observational Learning","rendered":"Observational Learning"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\r\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Define observational learning<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss the steps in the modelling process<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Explain the prosocial and antisocial effects of observational learning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\nPrevious sections of this chapter focused on classical and operant conditioning, which are forms of associative learning. In\u00a0observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modelling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behaviour are called models. Research suggests that this imitative learning involves a specific type of neuron, called a mirror neuron (Hickock, 2010; Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Fogassi, &amp; Gallese, 2002; Rizzolatti, Fogassi, &amp; Gallese, 2006).\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm109812704\">Humans and other animals are capable of observational learning. As you will see, the phrase \u201cmonkey see, monkey do\u201d really is accurate (see\u00a0Figure 16). The same could be said about other animals. For example, in a study of social learning in chimpanzees, researchers gave juice boxes with straws to two groups of captive chimpanzees. The first group dipped the straw into the juice box, and then sucked on the small amount of juice at the end of the straw. The second group sucked through the straw directly, getting much more juice. When the first group, the \u201cdippers,\u201d observed the second group, \u201cthe suckers,\u201d what do you think happened? All of the \u201cdippers\u201d in the first group switched to sucking through the straws directly. By simply observing the other chimps and modelling their behaviour, they learned that this was a more efficient method of getting juice (Yamamoto, Humle, and Tanaka, 2013).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Monkey\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"488\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Monkey.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person drinking from a water bottle, and a monkey next to the person drinking water from a bottle in the same manner.\" width=\"488\" height=\"266\" \/> <em>Figure 16.<\/em> This spider monkey learned to drink water from a plastic bottle by seeing the behaviour modelled by a human. (credit: U.S. Air Force, Senior Airman Kasey Close)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm117009008\">Imitation is much more obvious in humans, but is <span class=\"no-emphasis\">imitation<\/span> really the sincerest form of flattery? Consider Claire\u2019s experience with observational learning. Claire\u2019s nine-year-old son, Jay, was getting into trouble at school and was defiant at home. Claire feared that Jay would end up like her brothers, two of whom were in prison. One day, after yet another bad day at school and another negative note from the teacher, Claire, at her wit\u2019s end, beat her son with a belt to get him to behave. Later that night, as she put her children to bed, Claire witnessed her four-year-old daughter, Anna, take a belt to her teddy bear and whip it. Claire was horrified, realizing that Anna was imitating her mother. It was then that Claire knew she wanted to discipline her children in a different manner.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm98684592\">Like Tolman, whose experiments with rats suggested a cognitive component to learning, psychologist Albert Bandura\u2019s ideas about learning were different from those of strict behaviourists. Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviourism called social learning theory, which took cognitive processes into account. According to <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Bandura<\/span>, pure behaviourism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation. In imitation, a person simply copies what the model does. Observational learning is much more complex. According to Lefran\u00e7ois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm58056048\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won\u2019t be late.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get burned on a stove.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"eip-585\">Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic. A live model demonstrates a behaviour in person, as when Ben stood up on his surfboard so that Julian could see how he did it. A verbal instructional model does not perform the behaviour, but instead explains or describes the behaviour, as when a soccer coach tells his young players to kick the ball with the side of the foot, not with the toe. A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviours in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources (see\u00a0Figure 17).<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Yoga\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"650\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Yoga.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a yoga instructor demonstrating a yoga pose while a group of students observes her and copies the pose. Photo B shows a child watching television.\" width=\"650\" height=\"324\" \/> <em>Figure 17.<\/em> (a) Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct stance and movement for her students (live model). (b) Models don\u2019t have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modelling, this child can learn a behaviour by watching someone demonstrate it on television. (credit a: modification of work by Tony Cecala; credit b: modification of work by Andrew Hyde)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm31217248\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\r\nLatent learning and modelling are used all the time in the world of marketing and advertising. The following commercial played for months across the New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut areas, Derek Jeter, an award-winning baseball player for the New York Yankees, is advertising a Ford. The commercial aired in a part of the country where Jeter is an incredibly well-known athlete. He is wealthy, and considered very loyal and good looking. What message are the advertisers sending by having him featured in the ad? How effective do you think it is?\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5j5Xr1t6DJc?rel=0\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm90042416\">\r\n<h1>Steps in the Modelling Process<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm47939712\">Of course, we don\u2019t learn a behaviour simply by observing a model. Bandura described specific steps in the process of modelling that must be followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. First, you must be focused on what the model is doing\u2014you have to pay attention. Next, you must be able to retain, or remember, what you observed; this is retention. Then, you must be able to perform the behaviour that you observed and committed to memory; this is reproduction. Finally, you must have motivation. You need to want to copy the behaviour, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model was reinforced for her behaviour, you will be more motivated to copy her. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment. For example, imagine that four-year-old Allison watched her older sister Kaitlyn playing in their mother\u2019s makeup, and then saw Kaitlyn get a time out when their mother came in. After their mother left the room, Allison was tempted to play in the make-up, but she did not want to get a time-out from her mother. What do you think she did? Once you actually demonstrate the new behaviour, the reinforcement you receive plays a part in whether or not you will repeat the behaviour.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp13756704\">Bandura researched modelling behaviour, particularly children\u2019s modelling of adults\u2019 aggressive and violent behaviours (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1961). He conducted an experiment with a five-foot inflatable doll that he called a Bobo doll. In the experiment, children\u2019s aggressive behaviour was influenced by whether the teacher was punished for her behaviour. In one scenario, a teacher acted aggressively with the doll, hitting, throwing, and even punching the doll, while a child watched. There were two types of responses by the children to the teacher\u2019s behaviour. When the teacher was punished for her bad behaviour, the children decreased their tendency to act as she had. When the teacher was praised or ignored (and not punished for her behaviour), the children imitated what she did, and even what she said. They punched, kicked, and yelled at the doll.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm85115728\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\r\nWatch this video clip to see a portion of the famous Bobo doll experiment, including an interview with Albert Bandura:\r\n<iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Z0iWpSNu3NU?rel=0\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm28805040\">What are the implications of this study? Bandura concluded that we watch and learn, and that this learning can have both\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">prosocial<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\">antisocial<\/span> effects. Prosocial (positive) models can be used to encourage socially acceptable behaviour. Parents in particular should take note of this finding. If you want your children to read, then read to them. Let them see you reading. Keep books in your home. Talk about your favourite books. If you want your children to be healthy, then let them see you eat right and exercise, and spend time engaging in physical fitness activities together. The same holds true for qualities like kindness, courtesy, and honesty. The main idea is that children observe and learn from their parents, even their parents\u2019 morals, so be consistent and toss out the old adage \u201cDo as I say, not as I do,\u201d because children tend to copy what you do instead of what you say. Besides parents, many public figures, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi, are viewed as prosocial models who are able to inspire global social change. Can you think of someone who has been a prosocial model in your life?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91671136\">The antisocial effects of observational learning are also worth mentioning. As you saw from the example of Claire at the beginning of this section, her daughter viewed Claire\u2019s aggressive behaviour and copied it. Research suggests that this may help to explain why abused children often grow up to be abusers themselves (Murrell, Christoff, &amp; Henning, 2007). In fact, about 30% of abused children become abusive parents (U.S. Department of Health &amp; Human Services, 2013). We tend to do what we know. Abused children, who grow up witnessing their parents deal with anger and frustration through violent and aggressive acts, often learn to behave in that manner themselves. Sadly, it\u2019s a vicious cycle that\u2019s difficult to break.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm65050016\">Some studies suggest that violent television shows, movies, and video games may also have antisocial effects (see\u00a0Figure 18) although further research needs to be done to understand the correlational and causal\u00a0aspects of media violence and behaviour. Some studies have found a link between viewing violence and aggression seen in children (Anderson &amp; Gentile, 2008; Kirsch, 2010; Miller, Grabell, Thomas, Bermann, &amp; Graham-Bermann, 2012). These findings may not be surprising, given that a child graduating from high school has been exposed to around 200,000 violent acts including murder, robbery, torture, bombings, beatings, and rape through various forms of media (Huston et al., 1992). Not only might viewing media violence affect aggressive behaviour by teaching people to act that way in real life situations, but it has also been suggested that repeated exposure to violent acts also desensitizes people to it. Psychologists are working to understand this dynamic.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Videogames\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"325\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Videogames.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows two children playing a video game and pointing a gun-like object toward a screen.\" width=\"325\" height=\"217\" \/> <em>Figure 18.<\/em> Can video games make us violent? Psychological researchers study this topic. (credit: \"woodleywonderworks\"\/Flickr)[\/caption]<\/figure>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm164364336\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\"><section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\r\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\r\nView this <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wnet\/need-to-know\/culture\/video-games-and-violence\/16355\/\" rel=\"nofollow\">video<\/a> to hear Brad Bushman, a psychologist who has published extensively on human aggression and violence, discuss his research.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section><\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\r\n<h3>Source<\/h3>\r\n<span class=\"name\">OpenStax<\/span>, Psychology. OpenStax CNX. Download for free at <a href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.46.\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.46.<\/a>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3>Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Define observational learning<\/li>\n<li>Discuss the steps in the modelling process<\/li>\n<li>Explain the prosocial and antisocial effects of observational learning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p>Previous sections of this chapter focused on classical and operant conditioning, which are forms of associative learning. In\u00a0observational learning, we learn by watching others and then imitating, or modelling, what they do or say. The individuals performing the imitated behaviour are called models. Research suggests that this imitative learning involves a specific type of neuron, called a mirror neuron (Hickock, 2010; Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Fogassi, &amp; Gallese, 2002; Rizzolatti, Fogassi, &amp; Gallese, 2006).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm109812704\">Humans and other animals are capable of observational learning. As you will see, the phrase \u201cmonkey see, monkey do\u201d really is accurate (see\u00a0Figure 16). The same could be said about other animals. For example, in a study of social learning in chimpanzees, researchers gave juice boxes with straws to two groups of captive chimpanzees. The first group dipped the straw into the juice box, and then sucked on the small amount of juice at the end of the straw. The second group sucked through the straw directly, getting much more juice. When the first group, the \u201cdippers,\u201d observed the second group, \u201cthe suckers,\u201d what do you think happened? All of the \u201cdippers\u201d in the first group switched to sucking through the straws directly. By simply observing the other chimps and modelling their behaviour, they learned that this was a more efficient method of getting juice (Yamamoto, Humle, and Tanaka, 2013).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Monkey\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 488px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Monkey.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person drinking from a water bottle, and a monkey next to the person drinking water from a bottle in the same manner.\" width=\"488\" height=\"266\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Figure 16.<\/em> This spider monkey learned to drink water from a plastic bottle by seeing the behaviour modelled by a human. (credit: U.S. Air Force, Senior Airman Kasey Close)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<p id=\"fs-idm117009008\">Imitation is much more obvious in humans, but is <span class=\"no-emphasis\">imitation<\/span> really the sincerest form of flattery? Consider Claire\u2019s experience with observational learning. Claire\u2019s nine-year-old son, Jay, was getting into trouble at school and was defiant at home. Claire feared that Jay would end up like her brothers, two of whom were in prison. One day, after yet another bad day at school and another negative note from the teacher, Claire, at her wit\u2019s end, beat her son with a belt to get him to behave. Later that night, as she put her children to bed, Claire witnessed her four-year-old daughter, Anna, take a belt to her teddy bear and whip it. Claire was horrified, realizing that Anna was imitating her mother. It was then that Claire knew she wanted to discipline her children in a different manner.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm98684592\">Like Tolman, whose experiments with rats suggested a cognitive component to learning, psychologist Albert Bandura\u2019s ideas about learning were different from those of strict behaviourists. Bandura and other researchers proposed a brand of behaviourism called social learning theory, which took cognitive processes into account. According to <span class=\"no-emphasis\">Bandura<\/span>, pure behaviourism could not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must also have a role in learning and that observational learning involves much more than imitation. In imitation, a person simply copies what the model does. Observational learning is much more complex. According to Lefran\u00e7ois (2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur:<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm58056048\">\n<ol>\n<li>You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes earlier so that you won\u2019t be late.<\/li>\n<li>You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When learning to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing. On the other hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after watching his father get burned on a stove.<\/li>\n<li>You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"eip-585\">Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic. A live model demonstrates a behaviour in person, as when Ben stood up on his surfboard so that Julian could see how he did it. A verbal instructional model does not perform the behaviour, but instead explains or describes the behaviour, as when a soccer coach tells his young players to kick the ball with the side of the foot, not with the toe. A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviours in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources (see\u00a0Figure 17).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Yoga\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Yoga.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph A shows a yoga instructor demonstrating a yoga pose while a group of students observes her and copies the pose. Photo B shows a child watching television.\" width=\"650\" height=\"324\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Figure 17.<\/em> (a) Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct stance and movement for her students (live model). (b) Models don\u2019t have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modelling, this child can learn a behaviour by watching someone demonstrate it on television. (credit a: modification of work by Tony Cecala; credit b: modification of work by Andrew Hyde)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div id=\"fs-idm31217248\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\n<p>Latent learning and modelling are used all the time in the world of marketing and advertising. The following commercial played for months across the New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut areas, Derek Jeter, an award-winning baseball player for the New York Yankees, is advertising a Ford. The commercial aired in a part of the country where Jeter is an incredibly well-known athlete. He is wealthy, and considered very loyal and good looking. What message are the advertisers sending by having him featured in the ad? How effective do you think it is?<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5j5Xr1t6DJc?rel=0\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm90042416\">\n<h1>Steps in the Modelling Process<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm47939712\">Of course, we don\u2019t learn a behaviour simply by observing a model. Bandura described specific steps in the process of modelling that must be followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. First, you must be focused on what the model is doing\u2014you have to pay attention. Next, you must be able to retain, or remember, what you observed; this is retention. Then, you must be able to perform the behaviour that you observed and committed to memory; this is reproduction. Finally, you must have motivation. You need to want to copy the behaviour, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model was reinforced for her behaviour, you will be more motivated to copy her. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment. For example, imagine that four-year-old Allison watched her older sister Kaitlyn playing in their mother\u2019s makeup, and then saw Kaitlyn get a time out when their mother came in. After their mother left the room, Allison was tempted to play in the make-up, but she did not want to get a time-out from her mother. What do you think she did? Once you actually demonstrate the new behaviour, the reinforcement you receive plays a part in whether or not you will repeat the behaviour.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp13756704\">Bandura researched modelling behaviour, particularly children\u2019s modelling of adults\u2019 aggressive and violent behaviours (Bandura, Ross, &amp; Ross, 1961). He conducted an experiment with a five-foot inflatable doll that he called a Bobo doll. In the experiment, children\u2019s aggressive behaviour was influenced by whether the teacher was punished for her behaviour. In one scenario, a teacher acted aggressively with the doll, hitting, throwing, and even punching the doll, while a child watched. There were two types of responses by the children to the teacher\u2019s behaviour. When the teacher was punished for her bad behaviour, the children decreased their tendency to act as she had. When the teacher was praised or ignored (and not punished for her behaviour), the children imitated what she did, and even what she said. They punched, kicked, and yelled at the doll.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm85115728\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\n<p>Watch this video clip to see a portion of the famous Bobo doll experiment, including an interview with Albert Bandura:<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Z0iWpSNu3NU?rel=0\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm28805040\">What are the implications of this study? Bandura concluded that we watch and learn, and that this learning can have both\u00a0<span class=\"no-emphasis\">prosocial<\/span> and <span class=\"no-emphasis\">antisocial<\/span> effects. Prosocial (positive) models can be used to encourage socially acceptable behaviour. Parents in particular should take note of this finding. If you want your children to read, then read to them. Let them see you reading. Keep books in your home. Talk about your favourite books. If you want your children to be healthy, then let them see you eat right and exercise, and spend time engaging in physical fitness activities together. The same holds true for qualities like kindness, courtesy, and honesty. The main idea is that children observe and learn from their parents, even their parents\u2019 morals, so be consistent and toss out the old adage \u201cDo as I say, not as I do,\u201d because children tend to copy what you do instead of what you say. Besides parents, many public figures, such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi, are viewed as prosocial models who are able to inspire global social change. Can you think of someone who has been a prosocial model in your life?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91671136\">The antisocial effects of observational learning are also worth mentioning. As you saw from the example of Claire at the beginning of this section, her daughter viewed Claire\u2019s aggressive behaviour and copied it. Research suggests that this may help to explain why abused children often grow up to be abusers themselves (Murrell, Christoff, &amp; Henning, 2007). In fact, about 30% of abused children become abusive parents (U.S. Department of Health &amp; Human Services, 2013). We tend to do what we know. Abused children, who grow up witnessing their parents deal with anger and frustration through violent and aggressive acts, often learn to behave in that manner themselves. Sadly, it\u2019s a vicious cycle that\u2019s difficult to break.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm65050016\">Some studies suggest that violent television shows, movies, and video games may also have antisocial effects (see\u00a0Figure 18) although further research needs to be done to understand the correlational and causal\u00a0aspects of media violence and behaviour. Some studies have found a link between viewing violence and aggression seen in children (Anderson &amp; Gentile, 2008; Kirsch, 2010; Miller, Grabell, Thomas, Bermann, &amp; Graham-Bermann, 2012). These findings may not be surprising, given that a child graduating from high school has been exposed to around 200,000 violent acts including murder, robbery, torture, bombings, beatings, and rape through various forms of media (Huston et al., 1992). Not only might viewing media violence affect aggressive behaviour by teaching people to act that way in real life situations, but it has also been suggested that repeated exposure to violent acts also desensitizes people to it. Psychologists are working to understand this dynamic.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"Figure06_04_Videogames\" class=\"ui-has-child-figcaption\">\n<figure style=\"width: 325px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/195\/2017\/06\/CNX_Psych_06_04_Videogames.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows two children playing a video game and pointing a gun-like object toward a screen.\" width=\"325\" height=\"217\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Figure 18.<\/em> Can video games make us violent? Psychological researchers study this topic. (credit: &#8220;woodleywonderworks&#8221;\/Flickr)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<div id=\"fs-idm164364336\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\">\n<section>\n<div class=\"textbox exercises\">\n<h3>Activity: Watch a Video<\/h3>\n<p>View this <a href=\"http:\/\/www.pbs.org\/wnet\/need-to-know\/culture\/video-games-and-violence\/16355\/\" rel=\"nofollow\">video<\/a> to hear Brad Bushman, a psychologist who has published extensively on human aggression and violence, discuss his research.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<div class=\"textbox key-takeaways\">\n<h3>Source<\/h3>\n<p><span class=\"name\">OpenStax<\/span>, Psychology. OpenStax CNX. Download for free at <a href=\"http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.46.\">http:\/\/cnx.org\/contents\/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.46.<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":28,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-134","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":112,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/134","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/28"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/134\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":353,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/134\/revisions\/353"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/112"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/134\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=134"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=134"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=134"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/kpupsyc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=134"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}