{"id":66,"date":"2023-01-26T20:47:06","date_gmt":"2023-01-27T01:47:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/front-matter\/__unknown__-2\/"},"modified":"2025-12-10T20:06:33","modified_gmt":"2025-12-11T01:06:33","slug":"introduction","status":"publish","type":"front-matter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/front-matter\/introduction\/","title":{"raw":"Introduction to Land Use Planning and Policy","rendered":"Introduction to Land Use Planning and Policy"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThis introduction sets the foundation for analysing the case studies.\u00a0 We introduce learners to the tenets of planning, land use planning, and the planning profession.\u00a0 We focus on the unique combination of being oriented to the future, to knowing what we want a better future to look like, and of translating this better future into decisions about how land should be used today.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Modules that support this introduction\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/career-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>A Career in Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Using three examples of municipal planning departments, this module describes a range of positions for planners who work for local governments and what they do.\u00a0 The module emphasises entry-level positions and explains how one becomes a professional planner.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/property_rights_land_tenure\/\"><strong>Property Rights and Land Tenure<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module introduces the basics of property rights with a focus on use, control, and disposition rights.\u00a0 Explains the related concept of tenure.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/indigenous_title_rights\/\"><strong>Indigenous Title and Rights<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module explains the difference between Indigenous title and rights to land.\u00a0 Provides a summary of important Supreme Court decisions that recognise Indigenous title and rights to land.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\r\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/theories_planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Theories of Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module describes a range of how scholars and practitioners approach planning.\u00a0 Different schools of planning thought covered are systems and rational theories of planning; Marxism and critical theory; new right planning; pragmatism; planners as advocates; postmodern planning; and, collaborative planning.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<h2><strong>Today\u2019s issues.\u00a0 Your future.<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nWe all want to make the world a better place.\u00a0 But how do we get there?\u00a0 This question requires us to think about what we <em>want<\/em> the future to look like.\u00a0 We must then determine what decisions we need to make today to achieve the future we want for tomorrow.\u00a0 This way of thinking defines the field of professional planning, setting it apart from all other professions.\u00a0 No other professional practice has an explicit focus on the future and the steps necessary to get there.\u00a0 Among the many things to consider within the field of planning, we must plan for how we use our lands because, in the end, everything people do has an impact on the land.\u00a0 Hence, land use planning.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThis way of thinking also shapes the responsibilities of a professional planner.\u00a0 As illustrated in Figure 1, we can see planners as a critical link between the field of community development and the practice of law.\u00a0 On the one hand, the practice of professional planning draws from community development, which embodies the future orientation of what a better community should be.\u00a0 The primary concern of community planning is to facilitate a collective vision of this desirable future.\u00a0 The primary concern of professional planning is translating this vision into a land use plan supported by zoning bylaws.\u00a0 This aspect of planning deals with property rights law, working with lawyers to draft bylaws, and implementing these bylaws.\u00a0 These primary concerns of planning are discussed in more detail below.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMost professional planners work for local governments, which include municipalities and regional districts.\u00a0 Professional planners also work in the provincial government, usually in ministries that have some jurisdiction over the use of land, and for consulting firms that serve local governments and development corporations.\u00a0 Within a local government, the responsibilities of a planning department cover the essential, day-to-day aspects of land use planning and long-term aspects of community planning.\u00a0 Collectively, the work of planners covers different areas of expertise, such as community planning, zoning, economic development, climate change and adaptation, public spaces, housing, affordable housing, and transportation, among others.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nFigure 1.\u00a0 The practice of professional planning\r\n\r\n<img class=\"alignnone wp-image-1048\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-300x191.png\" alt=\"Planning spectrum\" width=\"748\" height=\"476\" \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nMost professional planners work for local governments, which include municipalities and regional districts.\u00a0 Professional planners also work in the provincial government, usually in ministries that have some jurisdiction over the use of land, and for consulting firms that serve local governments and development corporations.\u00a0 Within a local government, the responsibilities of a planning department cover the essential, day-to-day aspects of land use planning and long-term aspects of community planning.\u00a0 Collectively, the work of planners covers different areas of expertise, such as community planning, zoning, economic development, climate change and adaptation, public spaces, housing, affordable housing, and transportation, among others.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/career-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A Career in Planning<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nIn British Columbia, professional planners are members of the Planning Institute of British Columbia (PIBC). To become a Registered Professional Planner (RPP), a person must qualify for and pass an examination that is administered by the Professional Standards Board.\u00a0 After passing the examination, a professional planner is eligible for recognition as a Member of the Canadian Institute of Planners (MCIP).\r\n\r\nAs evident in these introductory remarks, the field of land use planning covers a broad range of topics.\u00a0 Above all, planners must develop skills and knowledge required for understanding what can be done today to make the world a better place tomorrow.\u00a0 Accordingly, planners must understand what and who changes society, drives our economies, shapes our built environments, and affects the health of the environment.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Orientation to the future<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nWe plan when thinking about what we need to prepare for tonight\u2019s dinner, when we organise for a trip, or when we start thinking about a career after graduating.\u00a0 There are people who sell their services as a financial planner or a wedding planner.\u00a0 However, for all the ways that we engage in planning, there is something different about the profession of planning.\r\n\r\nWe can highlight specific aspects of the profession by looking, in a playful way, at differences between planning, <em>planning<\/em>, and Planning.\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In a casual way, we plan when thinking about what we need to prepare for tonight\u2019s dinner, when we organise for a trip, or when we start thinking about a career after graduating.\u00a0 There are people who sell their services as a financial planner or wedding planner. However, for all of the ways that we engage in planning, there is something different about land use planning.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We can highlight specific aspects of land use planning by looking, in a playful way, at differences between planning, <em>planning<\/em>, and Planning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">planning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Think of this small-p version as an informal use of planning, such as the way that we plan our day in order to get things done.\u00a0 In this sense, planning is something we do in a causal way, and without reflecting on what the term means or about our limits to knowing the future.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>planning<\/em><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This italicised version of planning reflects a more deliberate use of the term. Think of <em>planning <\/em>as the way a company does planning.\u00a0 A company gathers as much information as it can in order to figure out what its customers want, the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors, and steps they must take in order to maximise their market share and profits.\u00a0 In this way, <em>planning <\/em>refers to a deliberate, systematic approach to knowing as much as possible about the future in order to determine the best steps to achieve a positive outcome.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Planning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">The capital-p version of planning gets us to the profession of land use planning, which this textbook is about.\u00a0 Not only are land use planners oriented to the future and gather information in a systematic way, they are also people who are trained in the practice of land use and registered by a professional association (see text box).<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThese three ways of thinking about planning are not used in a formal way anywhere outside of this textbook.\u00a0 Our purpose of thinking about planning this way is to emphasise that planning, when used in relation to professional planning, is different from how it is used in other, more familiar contexts.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nTo gain further insights about planning, we must account for the following two conditions of planning:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Planning is oriented to the future.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>We cannot fully know the future.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nThinking about the future is entrenched in human nature.\u00a0 Typically, we want \u2018the future\u2019 to work out in our favour.\u00a0 For this to happen, we try to gain some control of what lies ahead, to see what the future has in store for us.\u00a0 In Greek and Roman mythology, many of the gods had powers of prophecy, the ability to foresee the future, including Apollo, Phoebe, and Themis.\u00a0 Greek society relied on its oracles to \u201cknow\u201d the future and bring it into the present.\u00a0 Of these oracles, the Oracle of Delphi is the most well-known.\u00a0 It was common for Greek society\u2019s leaders to consult with the Oracles before making important decisions about politics and economics.\r\n\r\nDuring the fifteenth century, Western society began a remarkable transformation into its modern form.\u00a0 Over a short period, generations of people witnessed navigation of the globe, separation of state and religion, revelation of the cosmos, emergence of science as a major centre of authority, evolution of agricultural practices, revolution of industrial manufacturing\u2014and a new orientation to the future.\r\n\r\nWhile most people know about modern developments of the scientific method and industrial revolution, few people are aware that how we thought about the future also changed.\u00a0 As our understanding of how the world works increased, society\u2019s confidence in knowing the future also grew.\u00a0 Rather than have <em>the<\/em> future revealed to us through prophecy, myth, and ritual, our future was open to unknown possibilities; it was an \u201copen\u201d or \u201cdiscernible\u201d future.\u00a0 It was a future open to unknown possibilities yet also open to human inquiry.\u00a0 As our knowledge of all aspects of nature, society, and the cosmos increased so, too, did our ability to discern probable futures\u2014and then to plan for these probabilities.\r\n\r\nIn fact, the word \u201cplanning\u201d appears in the English language only during the modern era.\u00a0 The need to <em>plan<\/em> arises only in direct relation with the realisation that humans have some control of our future.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Coping with a future we cannot know<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nInevitably, we have to come to terms with our limits of knowing.\u00a0 As Albert Einstein stated, \u201cAs our circle of knowledge expands, so does the circumference of darkness surrounding it.\u201d\u00a0 This statement reveals a point of reconciliation:\u00a0 the more we know, the more we become aware of what we do not know.\u00a0 Inevitably, confidence must be reconciled with uncertainty.\r\n\r\nWelcome to the world of planning:\u00a0 a way for society to cope with a future that we must know\u2014yet cannot know completely.\r\n\r\nThis reality makes planning a very curious thing:\u00a0 people are captivated by something we can never fully know, yet we try to know as much as we can about the future to control it.\u00a0 By planning, we strive to maximise what we <em>can<\/em> know about the future.\u00a0 By the same act, we come to recognise and accept what we cannot know.\u00a0 Planning, in this sense, can be viewed as a functional equivalent of religion, myths, and ritual; in different ways, each perspective helps people deal with an unknowable future in socially acceptable terms.\r\n\r\nWe must accept that planning is not about controlling or predicting the future or about providing absolute certainty.\u00a0 Rather, we plan because it helps to increase stability and security.\u00a0 Stability has both positive and positivist elements.\u00a0 It is positive in that there is a sense of being able to achieve future prospects of progress and development.\u00a0 It is positivist in the sense that (scientific) control and prediction are predicated on an objectively knowable reality.\u00a0 Security helps increase our sense of comfort with the unknown, by addressing danger, fear, anxiety that comes with uncertainty.\r\n\r\nPlanning is akin to risk.\u00a0 Specifically, risk is \u201ca matter of a decision that, as can be foreseen, will be subsequently regretted if a loss that one had hoped to avert occurs.\"[footnote]Luhmann, N. (1993) <em>Risk: A Sociological Theory<\/em>. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter, Inc., p. 11.[\/footnote]\u00a0 Thus, planning and risk re-inforce each other: planning is about making decisions based on what we know of the future; risk is the consequence of such decisions.\u00a0 We can also think of this relation this way:\u00a0 risk re-inforces the need to plan, which is intended to reduce risk.\u00a0 Both are ways to cope with an unknowable future.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n\r\nThese insights help to define planning as follows:\u00a0 the function of planning is to make the future a visible part of today\u2019s decision-making process.\u00a0 If this definition seems too abstract, think of it this way.\u00a0 You want to ensure that you have a good time while camping this upcoming long weekend.\u00a0 To minimise the risk of having a bad time, you envision what you want to do during the camping trip, as well as the food and equipment you will need.\u00a0 In other words, you will plan.\u00a0 By this act, you make your future activities a part of the decisions you need to make today in order to have a positive trip.\r\n\r\nThrough this definition, we can also appreciate subtle distinctions between planning, management, and design.\u00a0 While these words are often used interchangeably there are important distinctions to be made between them.\u00a0 Whereas planning is oriented to the future, both designing and managing are oriented to the present.\u00a0 To design is to make decisions in the present, and only after future decisions have been made.\u00a0 From the designer\u2019s perspective, planning decisions provide criteria for completing a design.\u00a0 To manage is to make decisions about decisions that need to be made in the present (among present options).\u00a0 That is, managing is knowing who makes what present decisions and how present decisions should be made.\u00a0 Thus, cities of early civilizations were not planned but designed; the designs were based on myth, tradition, and fate; not in a way that we think about the future today.\r\n\r\nAn orientation to the future is what makes the profession of planning unique among all professions.\u00a0 Importantly, there is another aspect of professional planning that must be considered before getting into the details of land use planning.\u00a0 We must also consider how the professional planner serves the public interest.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Additional Reading<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">Connell, David J. (2009). \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13563470902741609\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Planning and Its Orientation to the Future<\/a>,\u201d <em>International<\/em><em> Planning Studies<\/em> 14(1):85-98.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/theories_planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Theories of Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Serving the p<\/strong><strong>ublic interest<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">To begin a discussion about \u2018public interest,\u2019 we must clarify the term.\u00a0 We can begin by separating \u201cwhat is in the public interest from those things members of the public are interested in; they are not necessarily the same.\u201d[footnote]Ethical Journalism Network. \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/ethicaljournalismnetwork.org\/the-public-interest\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Is it in the Public\u2019s Interest?<\/a>\"[\/footnote]\u00a0 To say that something is \u201cin the public interest\u201d infers that we are not just taking a poll to determine the interest of the majority.\u00a0 Rather, to say that something is \u201cin the public interest\u201d presumes that there is a greater good or common good that transcends individual interests\u2014even if some members of the public do not agree.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The list of elements of public interest related to planning is extensive, as described in Box 1.<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Box 1.\u00a0 Elements of public interest related to land use planning<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Source: Leung, Hok Lin (2003). <em>Land Use Planning Made Plain<\/em> (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-13<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Health and safety<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection against accident hazards, contagion, excessive noise, atmospheric pollution<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Provision of adequate sunshine, ventilation, cleanliness, adequate privacy<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hence: building codes, for example<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Streets: channelling of traffic; separation from people; safety; security<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Convenience (to users)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">The adequacy and suitability of a space for the activities to be carried out in it<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Site layouts, adequate floor areas, parking provisions<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">The accessibility and choice of services and facilities at a location<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Reduction in time and distance between points (of residential or commercial interest)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Economic efficiency<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Public versus private costs<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cost to municipality; cost to developer<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Present and future costs<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Social equity<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Fairness: who pays and who benefits<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Choice: who is being kept out or impacted<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Environmental quality<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Enhancement<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Agricultural land (and other resources)<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection against urban issues<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Competition for land<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Conflict between farm and non-farm uses<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Heritage conservation<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Architectural or historic merit<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Natural heritage<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Wetlands, endangered and threatened species<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Infrastructure<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Most is \u2018middle aged\u2019<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Demand management and capacity expansion<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Rehabilitation and replacement<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Affordable housing<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Improvement and better use of existing housing<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Enhancement of community facilities<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Regulatory controls and affirmative action<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Housing for special groups<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Low income, elderly, physically challenged<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Visual amenity<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">Pleasantness of the physical environment<\/li>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\">An important dimension of public health and well-being<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nServing the public interest is an obligation of both public officials and professionals.\u00a0 Thus, we can add this understanding of serving the public interest to a definition of planning as a profession.\u00a0 Namely, professional planning is making a <em>desirable<\/em><em> future<\/em><em> public interest<\/em> a visible part of public decision-making processes.\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the late nineteenth century, the future public interest in the well-being of cities became eminent.\u00a0 Conflicts among uses of land, especially livestock within cities[footnote]Brinkley, Catherine, and Domenic Vitiello (2014).\u00a0 \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1538513213507542\">From Farm to Nuisance: Animal Agriculture and the Rise of Planning Regulation<\/a>.\u201d <em>Journal of Planning History<\/em>, 13(2): 113-135.[\/footnote], the need for better sanitation, poor water quality, and worsening public health conditions, all contributing to a decline in the quality of life within urban areas.[footnote]Hodge, Gerald, and David L. A. Gordon (2014).\u00a0 <em>Planning Canadian Communities: An Introduction to the Principles, Practice, and Participants<\/em>, Sixth ed.\u00a0 Toronto, ON: Nelson Education.[\/footnote]\u00a0 The worsening problem of urban centres made clear that the broad interest of the public interest was at stake.\u00a0 The profession of planning took shape in and from this context.\u00a0 Thus, in addition to planning\u2019s function of binding the future in decision-making, the practice of professional planning fills the additional, specific function of binding the future public interest to present decisions.<\/p>\r\nIn theoretical terms, planning can be defined as making decisions on what decisions need to be made in the future, thus binding the future to the present by fixing finite future possibilities through the structures of decision-making processes.\u00a0 In simpler terms, to plan is to make the future a visible, and discernible, part of modern decision-making processes.\u00a0 Professional planners make a future public interest a visible, and discernible, part of public decision-making processes in the present.\u00a0 Hence, the function of planning is only relevant to a future-oriented society and a future-oriented society requires planning to function.\u00a0 Furthermore, while not all practices of professional planners are aimed at the future, the function of planning always is.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Land use planning<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nIn this text we view land use planning through a lens of Canadian law, but not exclusively.\u00a0 Through the cases and applications, we also examine land use planning in relation to Indigenous peoples and law, including Indigenous title and rights (see below), government-to-government (or joint) land use planning, and Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs).\r\n\r\nPeople usually associate land use planning with cities, and we focus here on these urban environments to introduce land use planning.\u00a0 Urban land use planning is most easily recognised by maps that show different land use zones.\u00a0 Figure 2 is an example of a land use zone map for the City of Vancouver\u2019s downtown area.\u00a0 Each colour on this zoning map represents a different type of land use known as a zoning district, designated as residential, industrial, commercial, parks, etc.\u00a0 That is, the colours show which areas of the downtown Vancouver are designated for what purposes.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Figure 1. City of Vancouver, land use zones, downtown area.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/01\/image2.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"917\" height=\"618\" \/><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">More specifically, and technically, a zoning bylaw is the legal way to regulate the types of land uses allowed for areas of a city, as well as where a building can be located on a site, the maximum height and size of a building, and other provisions.\u00a0 Zoning regulations for a city like Vancouver are extensive and very detailed.\u00a0 For example, Vancouver has more than 50 zoning districts just for residential uses.\u00a0 There are dozens more zoning districts that cover industrial, commercial, historic, comprehensive, and agricultural uses.\u00a0 These regulations, which cover every property in a city, are set according to city-wide goals and priorities.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The relation between area-wide goals and zoning is very important, as it reveals the core areas of responsibility of a professional planner.\u00a0 These responsibilities range from creating a long-term vision of what a city should look like in, say, thirty years to what decisions we must make today to achieve that vision.\u00a0 At the broad end of the scale, planning is about envisioning what a city should look like in the future so that it is the best possible place to live, work, and play.\u00a0 It is a vision of a desirable future for a city as a whole.\u00a0 This aspect of planning is often referred to as long-range community planning.\u00a0 At the other end of the scale, zoning represents the outcome of land use planning processes, in which the broader priorities are translated into detailed regulations that dictate how land should be used. This aspect of land use planning is often referred to as current planning.\u00a0 In sum, as reflected in the definition of planning by the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP):\u00a0 \u201cPlanning addresses the use of land, resources, facilities, and services in ways that secure the physical, economic, and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities.\u201d[footnote]<a href=\"https:\/\/www.cip-icu.ca\/About\/About-Us#\">About Us<\/a>, Canadian Institute of Planners[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">What, then, is a land use plan?\u00a0 According to Hok Lin Leung, a land use plan is a \u201cconception about the spatial arrangement of land uses, with a set of proposed actions to make that a reality.\u201d[footnote]Leung, Hok Lin (2003).\u00a0 <em>Land Use Planning Made Plain<\/em> (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, p. 1.[\/footnote]\u00a0 This definition emphasises the spatial aspect of land use plans.\u00a0 In different terms, a land use plan is \u201cThe official statement of a\u2026legislative body which sets forth its major policies concerning desirable future physical environment.\u201d[footnote]Kent, T. J. (1964).\u00a0 <em>Planning. The Urban General Plan<\/em>. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company, cited in Leung (2003), p. 1.[\/footnote]\u00a0 This view of land use planning highlights the legal foundation of land use plans.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The purpose of this book is to engage learners in different contexts and explore different legislative frameworks that govern the uses of land.\u00a0 Each case and application is an example of a type of land use planning in British Columbia, including urban, rural, regional, First Nations reserves, agricultural, and protected areas.\u00a0 In each context, one must examine the corresponding legislative framework, which includes legislative acts and regulations of the provincial government and bylaws of local governments.<\/p>\r\nDepending on the type of land use, under common law, a legislative framework may be focussed on one or all levels of government, whether municipal, regional, or provincial, and sometimes federal.\u00a0 Legislation, including laws, regulations, statutory plans, and implementing bylaws, is the most important element of a framework, which is complemented by policies and governance mechanisms.\r\n\r\nA framework is based on the \u201cenabling\u201d legislation; that is, the legislative act (i.e., law) that enables a government or agency to govern land uses.\u00a0 For example, the <em>Local Government Act <\/em>(RSBC 2015 Ch. 1 Part 14) enables local governments to complete Official Community Plans (OCPs) and zoning regulations; the <em>Park Act <\/em>(RSBC 1996 Ch. 344) enables the provincial government to establish parks and protected areas; the <em>Agricultural Land Commission Act<\/em> (SBC 2002 Ch. 36) enables the provincial government to establish the Agricultural Land Reserve and the Agricultural Land Commission.\u00a0 Regulations that are adopted pursuant to the act usually set out details for creating and implementing the land use plan.\u00a0 Policies can be either enforceable or aspirational.\u00a0 Governance mechanisms include tribunals, such as the Agricultural Land Commission (ALC) and Oil and Gas Commission (OGC) at the provincial level, and planning advisory committee at the local level.\u00a0 Table 1 shows common elements of legislative frameworks that learners will encounter in the land use cases and applications covered in this text.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Table 1.<\/strong><strong> Common elements of a l<\/strong><strong>egislative framework <\/strong><strong>for land use planning<\/strong><strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n\r\n<table style=\"width: 758px;height: 742px\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 17.65pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 227.283px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>POLICY<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 160.867px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>LEGISLATION<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 173.183px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>GOVERNANCE<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 84.7pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>PROVINCIAL<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 227.283px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies\r\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 160.867px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Laws (Acts)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Regulations<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Orders-in-Council<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 173.183px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Tribunals\r\n(e.g., commissions)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 116.65pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>REGIONAL<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;width: 227.283px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Land and Resource Management Plans (LRMPs)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Sustainable Resource Management Plans (SRMPs)<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Strategic Plans<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Economic Development Strategies<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies\r\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 160.867px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Regional Growth Strategies<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Official Community Plans<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Zoning Bylaws<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 173.183px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Planning Advisory Committee<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 80.65pt\">\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>MUNICIPAL<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;width: 227.283px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Strategic Plans<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Economic Development Strategies<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies\r\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\r\n&nbsp;<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 160.867px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Official Community Plans<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Zoning Bylaws<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">(and regulatory tools)<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 173.183px\">\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Planning Advisory Committee<\/p>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 132.933px\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 228.083px\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 161.667px\"><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 173.183px\"><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2><\/h2>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Property rights<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">It is easy to assume that land use planning is about land.\u00a0 However, technically, the purpose of planning is about the <em>use <\/em>of a land.\u00a0 Correspondingly, when we consider uses of land, we are dealing with property rights.\u00a0 As we explore how land use planning relates to property rights, we will also discover how the work of a professional planner is tied to the practice of law.\u00a0 The relation between land use and property law is covered in detail by Howard Epstein, a lawyer who wrote a book about land use planning in Canada.\u00a0 As Epstein explains, \u201cModern property law sees itself as being concerned with \u2018legal relations among people regarding control and disposition of valued resources\u2019.\u201d[footnote]Epstein, Howard (2017).\u00a0 <em>Land-Use Planning<\/em>. Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc., p. 2.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">As <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Roy <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Vogt[footnote]Vogt, Roy (1999).\u00a0 <em>Whose property? The deepening conflict between private property and democracy in Canada<\/em>. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.[\/footnote]<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> explains, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">property <\/span>rights refers to a<span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> bundle of <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">entitlement, i.e., rights,<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> that governs the use of things<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.\u00a0 T<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">hese things<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> can be an idea, such as intellectual property, or an object, such as personal property<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.\u00a0 <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Property<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> also refers to land<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">, and s<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ince land is both sought-after and in limited supply, we <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">use<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> a system of rights to administer <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">its use<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">. <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While property has to do with things, modern property theory focusses not on the things themselves but on the kinds of rights required to control their use.\u00a0 In general terms, property rights of land encompasses a bundle of three rights:\u00a0 use; control; and disposition.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">U<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">se r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> entitle one to <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">occupy, derive income from, or extract natural resources from land<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">. <\/span><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Control (or enjoyment) r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> concerns t<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">he right to be protected from trespass, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">n<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">uisance, or expropriation (i.e., control others\u2019 uses)<\/span>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Disposition r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> concern the <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">right to sell, lease, subdivide, or bequeath lands<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.<\/span><\/p>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nInstead of referring to different combinations of rights as \u201cbundles,\u201d the legal term we use is tenure.\u00a0 Tenure refers to the legal regime in which interests in land are held.\u00a0 Although the term tenure may not be used often, people are familiar with different types of tenure, which exist in the form of a permit, lease, licence, grant, and other legal regimes.\u00a0 When a person \u201cowns\u201d a house, this form of tenure is called fee simple, which represents the fullest form of rights to land, including the right to use, control (enjoy), and dispose.\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">In BC\u2014notwithstanding Indigenous rights and title<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">, which is addressed below<\/span>\u2014<span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">all land is<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> ultimately owned by the Crown.\u00a0 Correspondingly, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">all <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">rights to land are<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> held directly or indirectly by some kind of tenure from the Crown<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/property_rights_land_tenure\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Property Rights and Land Tenure<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\r\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Indigenous title and rights <\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The general purpose of land use planning can be adopted by and applied in any societal context.\u00a0 However, when we consider the legal foundations of land use planning, we must distinguish between rights and title recognised by Canada law and rights and title under the laws of Indigenous Nations.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Indigenous rights derive from elements of distinctive practices, customs, and traditions integral to the culture of an Indigenous Nation.\u00a0 From a common law perspective, Indigenous rights to land are recognised as unique property rights.\u00a0 Such rights include the right to access and use land for hunting and trapping.\u00a0 These rights are <em>sui generis<\/em>.\u00a0 That is, they are recognised as existing prior to the European assertion of sovereignty and to the establishment of property rights under common law in Canada.\u00a0 Indigenous rights are a claim recognisable, protected, and enforceable by Canadian common law.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Indigenous title is a form of property right specific to land; it is a sub-set of Indigenous rights.\u00a0 Indigenous title, like other Indigenous rights, is a special right recognised as <em>sui generis<\/em>.\u00a0 In other words, Indigenous title to land is not derived from Canadian law.\u00a0 An Indigenous right (to hunt, for example) can exist independently of Indigenous title to land.\u00a0 Like other property rights under common law (but not the same as), Indigenous rights to land correspond to their occupation, use, and control of ancestral lands.\u00a0 Although Indigenous laws may not use these specific terms, these laws are premised on property rights, as embedded, for example, in the existence of traditional territories.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Under the <em>Constitution Act, 1982<\/em>, Indigenous rights to property do not include disposition rights.\u00a0 Indigenous people cannot sell rights to their land; they can only voluntarily surrender their land to the Crown through agreements (e.g., treaties).\u00a0 Also, Indigenous rights and title to land are recognised as communal; they are not held by any individual Indigenous person but by Indigenous nations.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Legal recognition, as well as general understanding, of Indigenous title and rights are long-standing issues that have been subject to many cases before the Supreme Court of Canada.\u00a0 Although the process has been slow, each court decision contributes to an evolutionary relation between Canada law and Indigenous law and, correspondingly, between modern property law and Indigenous rights and title.\u00a0 For a long time, modern property law was the only legal regime applied to land, including the <em>Indian Act<\/em>.\u00a0 The court decisions acknowledged the Crown\u2019s obligation to recognise Indigenous rights and title; however, in practice, recognition still left Indigenous rights and title to be accommodated largely within land use planning processes.\u00a0 Today, government-to-government land use planning processes are finding ways to work with Canada law and Indigenous law on a side-by-side basis.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/indigenous_title_rights\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Indigenous Title and Rights<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h2><strong>Collaboration with other professionals<\/strong><\/h2>\r\nProfessional planners never work alone.\u00a0 The function of land use planning touches all aspects of government services, including engineering, economic development, and social planning, and environmental management, among others.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Civil engineering<\/em><\/h3>\r\nWhile land use planners are concerned with what is built on land, civil engineers take care of what is under the ground, including water supply, sanitary sewers, storm sewers, and geotechnical conditions.\u00a0 But that is not all that engineers do; they address a wide range of infrastructure that serves the general public.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Safety and stability of structures\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Buildings and bridges to dams and tunnels, considering factors like load-bearing capacity, materials, and environmental conditions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Design of safe, efficient, and accessible transportation systems based on traffic patterns\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Road networks, pedestrian, cycling, airports, railways, and other transportation infrastructure.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Design systems for water supply, management, and conservation\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Water distribution (pipes). Stormwater and flood control, irrigation, wastewater treatment, dams, and reservoirs.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Geotechnical study of soil and rock materials to ensure the structural integrity and safety of infrastructure.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Conduct site analysis to assess land suitability for construction projects such as foundations for load-bearing, slope stability, and underground structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Energy management\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Energy supply and demand, energy efficiency, renewable energy, and green building codes and practices.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Other infrastructure\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Utility networks for electricity, gas, and waste management.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\nOn the technical side, the work of engineers includes feasibility studies to assess technical constraints and environmental impact assessments that consider air and water pollution.\u00a0 In conjunction with planners, the work of engineers must account for future land uses, population projections, and population density.\u00a0 Climate change and aging infrastructure are critical issues that permeate all the above.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Perspective:\u00a0 Ed Chanter, RPP MCIP, planning consultant (retired)\r\n<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">When considering suitable land uses for an area, planners need to take into account what's under the ground (i.e., water, sanitary sewer, storm sewer mains, soil and slope conditions) before making any recommendations for inclusion in Official Community Plans, rezonings, or premature commitments to developers.\u00a0 What's under the ground may sometimes result in excess costs for both a developer and\/or local government.\u00a0 The planner's idea of a suitable land use may not be practical unless the developer is required to meet specific conditions and pay for the costs associated with final approvals and development agreements.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Local economic development<\/em><\/h3>\r\nThe focus of local economic development is the economic well-being of a government, usually a municipal or regional government, and its residents.\u00a0 To foster a business environment that supports the creation and retention of jobs in a specific locality, an economic development officer ensures that government policies (e.g., zoning) and promotional strategies align with business development.\u00a0 The scope of economic development encompasses physical infrastructure (e.g., industrial park), human resources (e.g., skills training and development), and entrepreneurship (e.g., business planning).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Social planning<\/em><\/h3>\r\nThe focus of social planning is the general well-being of residents using an approach that encompasses broad determinants of health, including not only medical conditions but all resources that enhance quality of life, such as housing, employment, health care, transportation, and others.\u00a0 These resources relate to housing affordability, homelessness, poverty, child care, at-risk population, public safety, and food security.\r\n\r\nFrom a planning perspective, all determinants of health should be addressed in an Official Community Plan and encapsulated in a vision of a health community that is supported by appropriate social policies.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Environmental management<\/em><\/h3>\r\nThere is a significant relationship between the built environment and the natural environment.\u00a0 The field of environmental management covers many of the issues addressed by engineers, such as air quality, stormwater management, pollution, and water conservation.\u00a0 Other environmental resources are trees, forests, wildlife, pest control, and weed control.\u00a0 With the effects of climate change, the importance of managing environmental resources has risen dramatically.\u00a0 As evident in news reports, floods and fires pose significant threats that must be addressed through environmental management and emergency preparedness.","rendered":"<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>This introduction sets the foundation for analysing the case studies.\u00a0 We introduce learners to the tenets of planning, land use planning, and the planning profession.\u00a0 We focus on the unique combination of being oriented to the future, to knowing what we want a better future to look like, and of translating this better future into decisions about how land should be used today.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Modules that support this introduction<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/career-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>A Career in Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Using three examples of municipal planning departments, this module describes a range of positions for planners who work for local governments and what they do.\u00a0 The module emphasises entry-level positions and explains how one becomes a professional planner.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/property_rights_land_tenure\/\"><strong>Property Rights and Land Tenure<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module introduces the basics of property rights with a focus on use, control, and disposition rights.\u00a0 Explains the related concept of tenure.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/indigenous_title_rights\/\"><strong>Indigenous Title and Rights<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module explains the difference between Indigenous title and rights to land.\u00a0 Provides a summary of important Supreme Court decisions that recognise Indigenous title and rights to land.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<h2><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/theories_planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Theories of Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/h2>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This module describes a range of how scholars and practitioners approach planning.\u00a0 Different schools of planning thought covered are systems and rational theories of planning; Marxism and critical theory; new right planning; pragmatism; planners as advocates; postmodern planning; and, collaborative planning.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<h2><strong>Today\u2019s issues.\u00a0 Your future.<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>We all want to make the world a better place.\u00a0 But how do we get there?\u00a0 This question requires us to think about what we <em>want<\/em> the future to look like.\u00a0 We must then determine what decisions we need to make today to achieve the future we want for tomorrow.\u00a0 This way of thinking defines the field of professional planning, setting it apart from all other professions.\u00a0 No other professional practice has an explicit focus on the future and the steps necessary to get there.\u00a0 Among the many things to consider within the field of planning, we must plan for how we use our lands because, in the end, everything people do has an impact on the land.\u00a0 Hence, land use planning.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>This way of thinking also shapes the responsibilities of a professional planner.\u00a0 As illustrated in Figure 1, we can see planners as a critical link between the field of community development and the practice of law.\u00a0 On the one hand, the practice of professional planning draws from community development, which embodies the future orientation of what a better community should be.\u00a0 The primary concern of community planning is to facilitate a collective vision of this desirable future.\u00a0 The primary concern of professional planning is translating this vision into a land use plan supported by zoning bylaws.\u00a0 This aspect of planning deals with property rights law, working with lawyers to draft bylaws, and implementing these bylaws.\u00a0 These primary concerns of planning are discussed in more detail below.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Most professional planners work for local governments, which include municipalities and regional districts.\u00a0 Professional planners also work in the provincial government, usually in ministries that have some jurisdiction over the use of land, and for consulting firms that serve local governments and development corporations.\u00a0 Within a local government, the responsibilities of a planning department cover the essential, day-to-day aspects of land use planning and long-term aspects of community planning.\u00a0 Collectively, the work of planners covers different areas of expertise, such as community planning, zoning, economic development, climate change and adaptation, public spaces, housing, affordable housing, and transportation, among others.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Figure 1.\u00a0 The practice of professional planning<\/p>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignnone wp-image-1048\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-300x191.png\" alt=\"Planning spectrum\" width=\"748\" height=\"476\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-300x191.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-1024x652.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-768x489.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-65x41.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-225x143.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1-350x223.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/07\/Planning-spectrum-1.png 1488w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 748px) 100vw, 748px\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Most professional planners work for local governments, which include municipalities and regional districts.\u00a0 Professional planners also work in the provincial government, usually in ministries that have some jurisdiction over the use of land, and for consulting firms that serve local governments and development corporations.\u00a0 Within a local government, the responsibilities of a planning department cover the essential, day-to-day aspects of land use planning and long-term aspects of community planning.\u00a0 Collectively, the work of planners covers different areas of expertise, such as community planning, zoning, economic development, climate change and adaptation, public spaces, housing, affordable housing, and transportation, among others.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/career-planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A Career in Planning<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>In British Columbia, professional planners are members of the Planning Institute of British Columbia (PIBC). To become a Registered Professional Planner (RPP), a person must qualify for and pass an examination that is administered by the Professional Standards Board.\u00a0 After passing the examination, a professional planner is eligible for recognition as a Member of the Canadian Institute of Planners (MCIP).<\/p>\n<p>As evident in these introductory remarks, the field of land use planning covers a broad range of topics.\u00a0 Above all, planners must develop skills and knowledge required for understanding what can be done today to make the world a better place tomorrow.\u00a0 Accordingly, planners must understand what and who changes society, drives our economies, shapes our built environments, and affects the health of the environment.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Orientation to the future<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>We plan when thinking about what we need to prepare for tonight\u2019s dinner, when we organise for a trip, or when we start thinking about a career after graduating.\u00a0 There are people who sell their services as a financial planner or a wedding planner.\u00a0 However, for all the ways that we engage in planning, there is something different about the profession of planning.<\/p>\n<p>We can highlight specific aspects of the profession by looking, in a playful way, at differences between planning, <em>planning<\/em>, and Planning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In a casual way, we plan when thinking about what we need to prepare for tonight\u2019s dinner, when we organise for a trip, or when we start thinking about a career after graduating.\u00a0 There are people who sell their services as a financial planner or wedding planner. However, for all of the ways that we engage in planning, there is something different about land use planning.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">We can highlight specific aspects of land use planning by looking, in a playful way, at differences between planning, <em>planning<\/em>, and Planning.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">planning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">Think of this small-p version as an informal use of planning, such as the way that we plan our day in order to get things done.\u00a0 In this sense, planning is something we do in a causal way, and without reflecting on what the term means or about our limits to knowing the future.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><em>planning<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">This italicised version of planning reflects a more deliberate use of the term. Think of <em>planning <\/em>as the way a company does planning.\u00a0 A company gathers as much information as it can in order to figure out what its customers want, the strengths and weaknesses of their competitors, and steps they must take in order to maximise their market share and profits.\u00a0 In this way, <em>planning <\/em>refers to a deliberate, systematic approach to knowing as much as possible about the future in order to determine the best steps to achieve a positive outcome.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Planning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px\">The capital-p version of planning gets us to the profession of land use planning, which this textbook is about.\u00a0 Not only are land use planners oriented to the future and gather information in a systematic way, they are also people who are trained in the practice of land use and registered by a professional association (see text box).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>These three ways of thinking about planning are not used in a formal way anywhere outside of this textbook.\u00a0 Our purpose of thinking about planning this way is to emphasise that planning, when used in relation to professional planning, is different from how it is used in other, more familiar contexts.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>To gain further insights about planning, we must account for the following two conditions of planning:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Planning is oriented to the future.<\/li>\n<li>We cannot fully know the future.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Thinking about the future is entrenched in human nature.\u00a0 Typically, we want \u2018the future\u2019 to work out in our favour.\u00a0 For this to happen, we try to gain some control of what lies ahead, to see what the future has in store for us.\u00a0 In Greek and Roman mythology, many of the gods had powers of prophecy, the ability to foresee the future, including Apollo, Phoebe, and Themis.\u00a0 Greek society relied on its oracles to \u201cknow\u201d the future and bring it into the present.\u00a0 Of these oracles, the Oracle of Delphi is the most well-known.\u00a0 It was common for Greek society\u2019s leaders to consult with the Oracles before making important decisions about politics and economics.<\/p>\n<p>During the fifteenth century, Western society began a remarkable transformation into its modern form.\u00a0 Over a short period, generations of people witnessed navigation of the globe, separation of state and religion, revelation of the cosmos, emergence of science as a major centre of authority, evolution of agricultural practices, revolution of industrial manufacturing\u2014and a new orientation to the future.<\/p>\n<p>While most people know about modern developments of the scientific method and industrial revolution, few people are aware that how we thought about the future also changed.\u00a0 As our understanding of how the world works increased, society\u2019s confidence in knowing the future also grew.\u00a0 Rather than have <em>the<\/em> future revealed to us through prophecy, myth, and ritual, our future was open to unknown possibilities; it was an \u201copen\u201d or \u201cdiscernible\u201d future.\u00a0 It was a future open to unknown possibilities yet also open to human inquiry.\u00a0 As our knowledge of all aspects of nature, society, and the cosmos increased so, too, did our ability to discern probable futures\u2014and then to plan for these probabilities.<\/p>\n<p>In fact, the word \u201cplanning\u201d appears in the English language only during the modern era.\u00a0 The need to <em>plan<\/em> arises only in direct relation with the realisation that humans have some control of our future.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Coping with a future we cannot know<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Inevitably, we have to come to terms with our limits of knowing.\u00a0 As Albert Einstein stated, \u201cAs our circle of knowledge expands, so does the circumference of darkness surrounding it.\u201d\u00a0 This statement reveals a point of reconciliation:\u00a0 the more we know, the more we become aware of what we do not know.\u00a0 Inevitably, confidence must be reconciled with uncertainty.<\/p>\n<p>Welcome to the world of planning:\u00a0 a way for society to cope with a future that we must know\u2014yet cannot know completely.<\/p>\n<p>This reality makes planning a very curious thing:\u00a0 people are captivated by something we can never fully know, yet we try to know as much as we can about the future to control it.\u00a0 By planning, we strive to maximise what we <em>can<\/em> know about the future.\u00a0 By the same act, we come to recognise and accept what we cannot know.\u00a0 Planning, in this sense, can be viewed as a functional equivalent of religion, myths, and ritual; in different ways, each perspective helps people deal with an unknowable future in socially acceptable terms.<\/p>\n<p>We must accept that planning is not about controlling or predicting the future or about providing absolute certainty.\u00a0 Rather, we plan because it helps to increase stability and security.\u00a0 Stability has both positive and positivist elements.\u00a0 It is positive in that there is a sense of being able to achieve future prospects of progress and development.\u00a0 It is positivist in the sense that (scientific) control and prediction are predicated on an objectively knowable reality.\u00a0 Security helps increase our sense of comfort with the unknown, by addressing danger, fear, anxiety that comes with uncertainty.<\/p>\n<p>Planning is akin to risk.\u00a0 Specifically, risk is \u201ca matter of a decision that, as can be foreseen, will be subsequently regretted if a loss that one had hoped to avert occurs.&#8221;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Luhmann, N. (1993) Risk: A Sociological Theory. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter, Inc., p. 11.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-1\" href=\"#footnote-66-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 Thus, planning and risk re-inforce each other: planning is about making decisions based on what we know of the future; risk is the consequence of such decisions.\u00a0 We can also think of this relation this way:\u00a0 risk re-inforces the need to plan, which is intended to reduce risk.\u00a0 Both are ways to cope with an unknowable future.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<p>These insights help to define planning as follows:\u00a0 the function of planning is to make the future a visible part of today\u2019s decision-making process.\u00a0 If this definition seems too abstract, think of it this way.\u00a0 You want to ensure that you have a good time while camping this upcoming long weekend.\u00a0 To minimise the risk of having a bad time, you envision what you want to do during the camping trip, as well as the food and equipment you will need.\u00a0 In other words, you will plan.\u00a0 By this act, you make your future activities a part of the decisions you need to make today in order to have a positive trip.<\/p>\n<p>Through this definition, we can also appreciate subtle distinctions between planning, management, and design.\u00a0 While these words are often used interchangeably there are important distinctions to be made between them.\u00a0 Whereas planning is oriented to the future, both designing and managing are oriented to the present.\u00a0 To design is to make decisions in the present, and only after future decisions have been made.\u00a0 From the designer\u2019s perspective, planning decisions provide criteria for completing a design.\u00a0 To manage is to make decisions about decisions that need to be made in the present (among present options).\u00a0 That is, managing is knowing who makes what present decisions and how present decisions should be made.\u00a0 Thus, cities of early civilizations were not planned but designed; the designs were based on myth, tradition, and fate; not in a way that we think about the future today.<\/p>\n<p>An orientation to the future is what makes the profession of planning unique among all professions.\u00a0 Importantly, there is another aspect of professional planning that must be considered before getting into the details of land use planning.\u00a0 We must also consider how the professional planner serves the public interest.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Additional Reading<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">Connell, David J. (2009). \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13563470902741609\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Planning and Its Orientation to the Future<\/a>,\u201d <em>International<\/em><em> Planning Studies<\/em> 14(1):85-98.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/theories_planning\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Theories of Planning<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Serving the p<\/strong><strong>ublic interest<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">To begin a discussion about \u2018public interest,\u2019 we must clarify the term.\u00a0 We can begin by separating \u201cwhat is in the public interest from those things members of the public are interested in; they are not necessarily the same.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ethical Journalism Network. \u201cIs it in the Public\u2019s Interest?&quot;\" id=\"return-footnote-66-2\" href=\"#footnote-66-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 To say that something is \u201cin the public interest\u201d infers that we are not just taking a poll to determine the interest of the majority.\u00a0 Rather, to say that something is \u201cin the public interest\u201d presumes that there is a greater good or common good that transcends individual interests\u2014even if some members of the public do not agree.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The list of elements of public interest related to planning is extensive, as described in Box 1.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Box 1.\u00a0 Elements of public interest related to land use planning<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Source: Leung, Hok Lin (2003). <em>Land Use Planning Made Plain<\/em> (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-13<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Health and safety<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection against accident hazards, contagion, excessive noise, atmospheric pollution<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Provision of adequate sunshine, ventilation, cleanliness, adequate privacy<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Hence: building codes, for example<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Streets: channelling of traffic; separation from people; safety; security<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Convenience (to users)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">The adequacy and suitability of a space for the activities to be carried out in it<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Site layouts, adequate floor areas, parking provisions<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">The accessibility and choice of services and facilities at a location<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Reduction in time and distance between points (of residential or commercial interest)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Economic efficiency<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Public versus private costs<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Cost to municipality; cost to developer<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Present and future costs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Social equity<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Fairness: who pays and who benefits<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Choice: who is being kept out or impacted<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Environmental quality<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Enhancement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Agricultural land (and other resources)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Protection against urban issues<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Competition for land<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Conflict between farm and non-farm uses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Heritage conservation<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Architectural or historic merit<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Natural heritage<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Wetlands, endangered and threatened species<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Infrastructure<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Most is \u2018middle aged\u2019<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Demand management and capacity expansion<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Rehabilitation and replacement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Affordable housing<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Improvement and better use of existing housing<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Enhancement of community facilities<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Regulatory controls and affirmative action<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Housing for special groups<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Low income, elderly, physically challenged<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Visual amenity<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">Pleasantness of the physical environment<\/li>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\">An important dimension of public health and well-being<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Serving the public interest is an obligation of both public officials and professionals.\u00a0 Thus, we can add this understanding of serving the public interest to a definition of planning as a profession.\u00a0 Namely, professional planning is making a <em>desirable<\/em><em> future<\/em><em> public interest<\/em> a visible part of public decision-making processes.<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">In the late nineteenth century, the future public interest in the well-being of cities became eminent.\u00a0 Conflicts among uses of land, especially livestock within cities<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brinkley, Catherine, and Domenic Vitiello (2014).\u00a0 \u201cFrom Farm to Nuisance: Animal Agriculture and the Rise of Planning Regulation.\u201d Journal of Planning History, 13(2): 113-135.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-3\" href=\"#footnote-66-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>, the need for better sanitation, poor water quality, and worsening public health conditions, all contributing to a decline in the quality of life within urban areas.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Hodge, Gerald, and David L. A. Gordon (2014).\u00a0 Planning Canadian Communities: An Introduction to the Principles, Practice, and Participants, Sixth ed.\u00a0 Toronto, ON: Nelson Education.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-4\" href=\"#footnote-66-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 The worsening problem of urban centres made clear that the broad interest of the public interest was at stake.\u00a0 The profession of planning took shape in and from this context.\u00a0 Thus, in addition to planning\u2019s function of binding the future in decision-making, the practice of professional planning fills the additional, specific function of binding the future public interest to present decisions.<\/p>\n<p>In theoretical terms, planning can be defined as making decisions on what decisions need to be made in the future, thus binding the future to the present by fixing finite future possibilities through the structures of decision-making processes.\u00a0 In simpler terms, to plan is to make the future a visible, and discernible, part of modern decision-making processes.\u00a0 Professional planners make a future public interest a visible, and discernible, part of public decision-making processes in the present.\u00a0 Hence, the function of planning is only relevant to a future-oriented society and a future-oriented society requires planning to function.\u00a0 Furthermore, while not all practices of professional planners are aimed at the future, the function of planning always is.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Land use planning<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>In this text we view land use planning through a lens of Canadian law, but not exclusively.\u00a0 Through the cases and applications, we also examine land use planning in relation to Indigenous peoples and law, including Indigenous title and rights (see below), government-to-government (or joint) land use planning, and Indigenous protected and conserved areas (IPCAs).<\/p>\n<p>People usually associate land use planning with cities, and we focus here on these urban environments to introduce land use planning.\u00a0 Urban land use planning is most easily recognised by maps that show different land use zones.\u00a0 Figure 2 is an example of a land use zone map for the City of Vancouver\u2019s downtown area.\u00a0 Each colour on this zoning map represents a different type of land use known as a zoning district, designated as residential, industrial, commercial, parks, etc.\u00a0 That is, the colours show which areas of the downtown Vancouver are designated for what purposes.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Figure 1. City of Vancouver, land use zones, downtown area.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/1865\/2023\/01\/image2.png\" alt=\"image\" width=\"917\" height=\"618\" \/><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">More specifically, and technically, a zoning bylaw is the legal way to regulate the types of land uses allowed for areas of a city, as well as where a building can be located on a site, the maximum height and size of a building, and other provisions.\u00a0 Zoning regulations for a city like Vancouver are extensive and very detailed.\u00a0 For example, Vancouver has more than 50 zoning districts just for residential uses.\u00a0 There are dozens more zoning districts that cover industrial, commercial, historic, comprehensive, and agricultural uses.\u00a0 These regulations, which cover every property in a city, are set according to city-wide goals and priorities.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The relation between area-wide goals and zoning is very important, as it reveals the core areas of responsibility of a professional planner.\u00a0 These responsibilities range from creating a long-term vision of what a city should look like in, say, thirty years to what decisions we must make today to achieve that vision.\u00a0 At the broad end of the scale, planning is about envisioning what a city should look like in the future so that it is the best possible place to live, work, and play.\u00a0 It is a vision of a desirable future for a city as a whole.\u00a0 This aspect of planning is often referred to as long-range community planning.\u00a0 At the other end of the scale, zoning represents the outcome of land use planning processes, in which the broader priorities are translated into detailed regulations that dictate how land should be used. This aspect of land use planning is often referred to as current planning.\u00a0 In sum, as reflected in the definition of planning by the Canadian Institute of Planners (CIP):\u00a0 \u201cPlanning addresses the use of land, resources, facilities, and services in ways that secure the physical, economic, and social efficiency, health and well-being of urban and rural communities.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"About Us, Canadian Institute of Planners\" id=\"return-footnote-66-5\" href=\"#footnote-66-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">What, then, is a land use plan?\u00a0 According to Hok Lin Leung, a land use plan is a \u201cconception about the spatial arrangement of land uses, with a set of proposed actions to make that a reality.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Leung, Hok Lin (2003).\u00a0 Land Use Planning Made Plain (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, p. 1.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-6\" href=\"#footnote-66-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 This definition emphasises the spatial aspect of land use plans.\u00a0 In different terms, a land use plan is \u201cThe official statement of a\u2026legislative body which sets forth its major policies concerning desirable future physical environment.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Kent, T. J. (1964).\u00a0 Planning. The Urban General Plan. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company, cited in Leung (2003), p. 1.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-7\" href=\"#footnote-66-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0 This view of land use planning highlights the legal foundation of land use plans.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The purpose of this book is to engage learners in different contexts and explore different legislative frameworks that govern the uses of land.\u00a0 Each case and application is an example of a type of land use planning in British Columbia, including urban, rural, regional, First Nations reserves, agricultural, and protected areas.\u00a0 In each context, one must examine the corresponding legislative framework, which includes legislative acts and regulations of the provincial government and bylaws of local governments.<\/p>\n<p>Depending on the type of land use, under common law, a legislative framework may be focussed on one or all levels of government, whether municipal, regional, or provincial, and sometimes federal.\u00a0 Legislation, including laws, regulations, statutory plans, and implementing bylaws, is the most important element of a framework, which is complemented by policies and governance mechanisms.<\/p>\n<p>A framework is based on the \u201cenabling\u201d legislation; that is, the legislative act (i.e., law) that enables a government or agency to govern land uses.\u00a0 For example, the <em>Local Government Act <\/em>(RSBC 2015 Ch. 1 Part 14) enables local governments to complete Official Community Plans (OCPs) and zoning regulations; the <em>Park Act <\/em>(RSBC 1996 Ch. 344) enables the provincial government to establish parks and protected areas; the <em>Agricultural Land Commission Act<\/em> (SBC 2002 Ch. 36) enables the provincial government to establish the Agricultural Land Reserve and the Agricultural Land Commission.\u00a0 Regulations that are adopted pursuant to the act usually set out details for creating and implementing the land use plan.\u00a0 Policies can be either enforceable or aspirational.\u00a0 Governance mechanisms include tribunals, such as the Agricultural Land Commission (ALC) and Oil and Gas Commission (OGC) at the provincial level, and planning advisory committee at the local level.\u00a0 Table 1 shows common elements of legislative frameworks that learners will encounter in the land use cases and applications covered in this text.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Table 1.<\/strong><strong> Common elements of a l<\/strong><strong>egislative framework <\/strong><strong>for land use planning<\/strong><strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 758px;height: 742px\">\n<tbody>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 17.65pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\">\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 227.283px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>POLICY<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 160.867px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>LEGISLATION<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 173.183px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\"><strong>GOVERNANCE<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 84.7pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>PROVINCIAL<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 227.283px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies<br \/>\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 160.867px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Laws (Acts)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Regulations<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Orders-in-Council<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 173.183px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Tribunals<br \/>\n(e.g., commissions)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 116.65pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>REGIONAL<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;width: 227.283px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Land and Resource Management Plans (LRMPs)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Sustainable Resource Management Plans (SRMPs)<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Strategic Plans<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Economic Development Strategies<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies<br \/>\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 160.867px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Regional Growth Strategies<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Official Community Plans<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Zoning Bylaws<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 173.183px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Planning Advisory Committee<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"TableGrid1-R\" style=\"height: 80.65pt\">\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"background-color: #f2f2f2;vertical-align: middle;border: 0.5pt solid windowtext;width: 132.133px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center;margin-left: 5.65pt;margin-right: 5.65pt\"><strong>MUNICIPAL<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt 0.5pt 0.5pt;width: 227.283px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Strategic Plans<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Economic Development Strategies<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Policies<br \/>\n(enforceable, aspirational)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 160.867px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Official Community Plans<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Zoning Bylaws<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">(and regulatory tools)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<td class=\"TableGrid1-C\" style=\"vertical-align: top;border-color: windowtext;border-style: solid;border-width: 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.5pt 0.25pt;width: 173.183px\">\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"text-align: center\">Planning Advisory Committee<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 132.933px\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 228.083px\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 161.667px\"><\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 173.183px\"><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<h2><\/h2>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Property rights<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">It is easy to assume that land use planning is about land.\u00a0 However, technically, the purpose of planning is about the <em>use <\/em>of a land.\u00a0 Correspondingly, when we consider uses of land, we are dealing with property rights.\u00a0 As we explore how land use planning relates to property rights, we will also discover how the work of a professional planner is tied to the practice of law.\u00a0 The relation between land use and property law is covered in detail by Howard Epstein, a lawyer who wrote a book about land use planning in Canada.\u00a0 As Epstein explains, \u201cModern property law sees itself as being concerned with \u2018legal relations among people regarding control and disposition of valued resources\u2019.\u201d<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Epstein, Howard (2017).\u00a0 Land-Use Planning. Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc., p. 2.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-8\" href=\"#footnote-66-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">As <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Roy <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Vogt<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Vogt, Roy (1999).\u00a0 Whose property? The deepening conflict between private property and democracy in Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.\" id=\"return-footnote-66-9\" href=\"#footnote-66-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> explains, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">property <\/span>rights refers to a<span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> bundle of <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">entitlement, i.e., rights,<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> that governs the use of things<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.\u00a0 T<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">hese things<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> can be an idea, such as intellectual property, or an object, such as personal property<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.\u00a0 <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Property<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> also refers to land<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">, and s<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ince land is both sought-after and in limited supply, we <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">use<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> a system of rights to administer <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">its use<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">While property has to do with things, modern property theory focusses not on the things themselves but on the kinds of rights required to control their use.\u00a0 In general terms, property rights of land encompasses a bundle of three rights:\u00a0 use; control; and disposition.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">U<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">se r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> entitle one to <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">occupy, derive income from, or extract natural resources from land<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">. <\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Control (or enjoyment) r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> concerns t<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">he right to be protected from trespass, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">n<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">uisance, or expropriation (i.e., control others\u2019 uses)<\/span>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\" style=\"padding-left: 40px\"><strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">Disposition r<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">ights<\/span><\/strong><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> concern the <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">right to sell, lease, subdivide, or bequeath lands<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Instead of referring to different combinations of rights as \u201cbundles,\u201d the legal term we use is tenure.\u00a0 Tenure refers to the legal regime in which interests in land are held.\u00a0 Although the term tenure may not be used often, people are familiar with different types of tenure, which exist in the form of a permit, lease, licence, grant, and other legal regimes.\u00a0 When a person \u201cowns\u201d a house, this form of tenure is called fee simple, which represents the fullest form of rights to land, including the right to use, control (enjoy), and dispose.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\"><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">In BC\u2014notwithstanding Indigenous rights and title<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">, which is addressed below<\/span>\u2014<span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">all land is<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> ultimately owned by the Crown.\u00a0 Correspondingly, <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">all <\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">rights to land are<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\"> held directly or indirectly by some kind of tenure from the Crown<\/span><span lang=\"en-CA\" xml:lang=\"en-CA\">.<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/property_rights_land_tenure\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Property Rights and Land Tenure<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"__UNKNOWN__\">\n<h2 class=\"import-Normal\"><strong>Indigenous title and rights <\/strong><\/h2>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">The general purpose of land use planning can be adopted by and applied in any societal context.\u00a0 However, when we consider the legal foundations of land use planning, we must distinguish between rights and title recognised by Canada law and rights and title under the laws of Indigenous Nations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Indigenous rights derive from elements of distinctive practices, customs, and traditions integral to the culture of an Indigenous Nation.\u00a0 From a common law perspective, Indigenous rights to land are recognised as unique property rights.\u00a0 Such rights include the right to access and use land for hunting and trapping.\u00a0 These rights are <em>sui generis<\/em>.\u00a0 That is, they are recognised as existing prior to the European assertion of sovereignty and to the establishment of property rights under common law in Canada.\u00a0 Indigenous rights are a claim recognisable, protected, and enforceable by Canadian common law.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Indigenous title is a form of property right specific to land; it is a sub-set of Indigenous rights.\u00a0 Indigenous title, like other Indigenous rights, is a special right recognised as <em>sui generis<\/em>.\u00a0 In other words, Indigenous title to land is not derived from Canadian law.\u00a0 An Indigenous right (to hunt, for example) can exist independently of Indigenous title to land.\u00a0 Like other property rights under common law (but not the same as), Indigenous rights to land correspond to their occupation, use, and control of ancestral lands.\u00a0 Although Indigenous laws may not use these specific terms, these laws are premised on property rights, as embedded, for example, in the existence of traditional territories.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Under the <em>Constitution Act, 1982<\/em>, Indigenous rights to property do not include disposition rights.\u00a0 Indigenous people cannot sell rights to their land; they can only voluntarily surrender their land to the Crown through agreements (e.g., treaties).\u00a0 Also, Indigenous rights and title to land are recognised as communal; they are not held by any individual Indigenous person but by Indigenous nations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"import-Normal\">Legal recognition, as well as general understanding, of Indigenous title and rights are long-standing issues that have been subject to many cases before the Supreme Court of Canada.\u00a0 Although the process has been slow, each court decision contributes to an evolutionary relation between Canada law and Indigenous law and, correspondingly, between modern property law and Indigenous rights and title.\u00a0 For a long time, modern property law was the only legal regime applied to land, including the <em>Indian Act<\/em>.\u00a0 The court decisions acknowledged the Crown\u2019s obligation to recognise Indigenous rights and title; however, in practice, recognition still left Indigenous rights and title to be accommodated largely within land use planning processes.\u00a0 Today, government-to-government land use planning processes are finding ways to work with Canada law and Indigenous law on a side-by-side basis.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Learning Module<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"import-Normal\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/chapter\/indigenous_title_rights\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\"><strong>Indigenous Title and Rights<\/strong><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2><strong>Collaboration with other professionals<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>Professional planners never work alone.\u00a0 The function of land use planning touches all aspects of government services, including engineering, economic development, and social planning, and environmental management, among others.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Civil engineering<\/em><\/h3>\n<p>While land use planners are concerned with what is built on land, civil engineers take care of what is under the ground, including water supply, sanitary sewers, storm sewers, and geotechnical conditions.\u00a0 But that is not all that engineers do; they address a wide range of infrastructure that serves the general public.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Safety and stability of structures\n<ul>\n<li>Buildings and bridges to dams and tunnels, considering factors like load-bearing capacity, materials, and environmental conditions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Design of safe, efficient, and accessible transportation systems based on traffic patterns\n<ul>\n<li>Road networks, pedestrian, cycling, airports, railways, and other transportation infrastructure.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Design systems for water supply, management, and conservation\n<ul>\n<li>Water distribution (pipes). Stormwater and flood control, irrigation, wastewater treatment, dams, and reservoirs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Geotechnical study of soil and rock materials to ensure the structural integrity and safety of infrastructure.\n<ul>\n<li>Conduct site analysis to assess land suitability for construction projects such as foundations for load-bearing, slope stability, and underground structures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Energy management\n<ul>\n<li>Energy supply and demand, energy efficiency, renewable energy, and green building codes and practices.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Other infrastructure\n<ul>\n<li>Utility networks for electricity, gas, and waste management.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>On the technical side, the work of engineers includes feasibility studies to assess technical constraints and environmental impact assessments that consider air and water pollution.\u00a0 In conjunction with planners, the work of engineers must account for future land uses, population projections, and population density.\u00a0 Climate change and aging infrastructure are critical issues that permeate all the above.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\"><strong>Perspective:\u00a0 Ed Chanter, RPP MCIP, planning consultant (retired)<br \/>\n<\/strong><\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">When considering suitable land uses for an area, planners need to take into account what&#8217;s under the ground (i.e., water, sanitary sewer, storm sewer mains, soil and slope conditions) before making any recommendations for inclusion in Official Community Plans, rezonings, or premature commitments to developers.\u00a0 What&#8217;s under the ground may sometimes result in excess costs for both a developer and\/or local government.\u00a0 The planner&#8217;s idea of a suitable land use may not be practical unless the developer is required to meet specific conditions and pay for the costs associated with final approvals and development agreements.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Local economic development<\/em><\/h3>\n<p>The focus of local economic development is the economic well-being of a government, usually a municipal or regional government, and its residents.\u00a0 To foster a business environment that supports the creation and retention of jobs in a specific locality, an economic development officer ensures that government policies (e.g., zoning) and promotional strategies align with business development.\u00a0 The scope of economic development encompasses physical infrastructure (e.g., industrial park), human resources (e.g., skills training and development), and entrepreneurship (e.g., business planning).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Social planning<\/em><\/h3>\n<p>The focus of social planning is the general well-being of residents using an approach that encompasses broad determinants of health, including not only medical conditions but all resources that enhance quality of life, such as housing, employment, health care, transportation, and others.\u00a0 These resources relate to housing affordability, homelessness, poverty, child care, at-risk population, public safety, and food security.<\/p>\n<p>From a planning perspective, all determinants of health should be addressed in an Official Community Plan and encapsulated in a vision of a health community that is supported by appropriate social policies.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h3 style=\"text-align: left\"><em>Environmental management<\/em><\/h3>\n<p>There is a significant relationship between the built environment and the natural environment.\u00a0 The field of environmental management covers many of the issues addressed by engineers, such as air quality, stormwater management, pollution, and water conservation.\u00a0 Other environmental resources are trees, forests, wildlife, pest control, and weed control.\u00a0 With the effects of climate change, the importance of managing environmental resources has risen dramatically.\u00a0 As evident in news reports, floods and fires pose significant threats that must be addressed through environmental management and emergency preparedness.<\/p>\n<div class=\"media-attributions clear\" prefix:cc=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/ns#\" prefix:dc=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\"><h2>Media Attributions<\/h2><ul><li >Figure 1  The practice of professional planning  &copy;  David J. Connell    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike)<\/a> license<\/li><\/ul><\/div><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-66-1\">Luhmann, N. (1993) <em>Risk: A Sociological Theory<\/em>. New York, NY: Walter de Gruyter, Inc., p. 11. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-2\">Ethical Journalism Network. \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/ethicaljournalismnetwork.org\/the-public-interest\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Is it in the Public\u2019s Interest?<\/a>\" <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-3\">Brinkley, Catherine, and Domenic Vitiello (2014).\u00a0 \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1538513213507542\">From Farm to Nuisance: Animal Agriculture and the Rise of Planning Regulation<\/a>.\u201d <em>Journal of Planning History<\/em>, 13(2): 113-135. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-4\">Hodge, Gerald, and David L. A. Gordon (2014).\u00a0 <em>Planning Canadian Communities: An Introduction to the Principles, Practice, and Participants<\/em>, Sixth ed.\u00a0 Toronto, ON: Nelson Education. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-5\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cip-icu.ca\/About\/About-Us#\">About Us<\/a>, Canadian Institute of Planners <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-6\">Leung, Hok Lin (2003).\u00a0 <em>Land Use Planning Made Plain<\/em> (Second Edition). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, p. 1. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-7\">Kent, T. J. (1964).\u00a0 <em>Planning. The Urban General Plan<\/em>. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company, cited in Leung (2003), p. 1. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-8\">Epstein, Howard (2017).\u00a0 <em>Land-Use Planning<\/em>. Toronto, ON: Irwin Law Inc., p. 2. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-66-9\">Vogt, Roy (1999).\u00a0 <em>Whose property? The deepening conflict between private property and democracy in Canada<\/em>. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. <a href=\"#return-footnote-66-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":1858,"menu_order":2,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"Introduction","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by"},"front-matter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[53],"class_list":["post-66","front-matter","type-front-matter","status-publish","hentry","license-cc-by"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/66","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/front-matter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1858"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=66"}],"version-history":[{"count":25,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/66\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1378,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/66\/revisions\/1378"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter\/66\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=66"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"front-matter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/front-matter-type?post=66"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=66"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/landuseplanninginbc\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=66"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}