{"id":2392,"date":"2025-12-07T01:49:21","date_gmt":"2025-12-07T06:49:21","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/nepalitestv1\/?post_type=chapter&p=2392"},"modified":"2026-04-12T21:48:05","modified_gmt":"2026-04-13T01:48:05","slug":"chapter-9-unit-4-grammar-focus","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/nepalitestv1\/chapter\/chapter-9-unit-4-grammar-focus\/","title":{"raw":"Unit 4 \u2014 Grammar Focus","rendered":"Unit 4 \u2014 Grammar Focus"},"content":{"raw":"
\r\n

Commands and Requests<\/h2>\r\n
\r\n\r\nIn Nepali, imperative forms change according to the relationship between speaker and listener. Unlike English\u2014where politeness is added with words like please or indirect phrasing\u2014Nepali encodes politeness directly in the verb ending. The same command can sound informal, neutral, polite, or overly blunt depending on the form used.\r\n\r\nTo use imperatives correctly, learners must make two decisions:\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Choose the appropriate \u201cyou-level.\u201d\r\nNepali distinguishes between familiar, informal, and respectful second-person forms. Most beginners rely on the polite \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>) form, which is safe in everyday interaction.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Select the matching imperative pattern.\r\nEach \u201cyou-level\u201d has its own verb ending, and this choice determines whether the sentence functions as a direct command, a polite request, or a gentle suggestion.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nBecause imperative forms are strongly tied to social norms, choosing the wrong level may sound rude or too casual even if grammatically correct. Mastering these forms helps learners communicate naturally and respectfully in common situations such as classroom use, shopping, travel, and meeting new people.\r\n\r\n[table id=280 \/]<\/span>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n[table id=281 \/]\r\n\r\n[table id=282 \/]\r\n

    Imperative formation by verb class<\/h3>\r\nAt the High and Super-Polite levels, imperatives are largely built from the dictionary form (\u2013\u0928\u0941 \/ \u2013nu<\/em>) plus a respectful suffix. The biggest verb-class differences show up in the Low and Middle levels, which are formed from a working base.\r\n

    1) C-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\r\nFor many C-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a consonant), Nepali imperatives come in clear politeness levels. The low imperative is often just the bare base and can sound abrupt in everyday speech. To soften it, speakers commonly use a middle imperative, which adds a short \u201csupport\u201d vowel (often heard as -a<\/em>) so the command sounds smoother and more conversational. For polite and respectful situations, Nepali typically uses the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus a polite ending: \u2013nuhos<\/em> for standard polite commands and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-politer, more deferential requests.\r\n\r\n[table id=283 \/]\r\n

    2) V-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\r\n

    For many V-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a single vowel), Nepali imperatives also follow clear politeness levels. The low imperative is simply the bare base and can sound direct. To make the command friendlier in casual conversation, speakers often use a middle imperative by adding the informal marker -\u016b<\/em>. In polite and respectful contexts, Nepali again uses the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus polite endings: \u2013nuhos<\/em> for standard polite requests and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-polite, more deferential requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na-.<\/p>\r\n

    [table id=284 \/]<\/p>\r\n\r\n

    3) VV-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\r\nFor many VV-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a vowel sequence, such as \u0101u<\/em>- or piu<\/em>-), Nepali imperatives show a small but important difference at the casual levels. In the low imperative, speakers often use a shortened \u201ccall form\u201d by dropping the final -u<\/em> element (for example, \u0101<\/em> \u201ccome!\u201d and pi<\/em> \u201cdrink!\u201d). To make the command sound friendlier and more conversational, the middle imperative typically adds -\u016b<\/em>. In polite and respectful contexts, VV-verbs follow the regular pattern: the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus \u2013nuhos <\/em>for standard polite requests and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-polite requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na<\/em>-.\r\n\r\n[table id=286 \/]\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

    Irregular Imperative Bases<\/h3>\r\nA small set of very common verbs have lexicalized (memorized) low and middle imperative bases. In other words, instead of following the usual base-building rules, these verbs use special short forms that learners should simply learn as fixed commands. The key point is that this irregularity mainly affects the low and middle levels. The high (polite) imperative remains regular for these verbs: use the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus \u2013nuhos<\/em> to form polite requests.\r\n\r\n[table id=287 \/]\r\n\r\n
    <\/header>
    Note on Spoken Nepali: In everyday conversation, High imperatives often undergo phonological reduction while remaining polite:\r\n
      \r\n \t
    • \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (kh\u0101nuhos<\/em>) \u2192 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u094d (kh\u0101nus<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n \t
    • \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (basnuhos<\/em>) \u2192 \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0938\u094d (basnus<\/em>)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThese reduced forms are common in speech and sound natural in many contexts.\r\n\r\n<\/header>
      \r\n

      Simple past tense<\/h2>\r\nIn Nepali, the simple past is the main past tense used to describe events, actions, and situations that are understood as completed. It is the default tense for reporting what happened, what someone did, or what was true at that time. In many cases, it matches the English simple past (for example: I went, she came, they ate, it was). However, Nepali also uses the simple past very naturally for recent updates\u2014when something has just happened and the speaker is sharing new information. In these situations, English often prefers the present perfect (has\/have), but Nepali still uses a simple past form, as in \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u094b (p\u0101n\u012b \u0101yo.<\/em>) \u201cIt started raining \/ It has started raining\u201d and \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b? (uh\u0101\u0303 \u0101unubhayo?<\/em>) \u201cDid he\/she arrive? \/ Has he\/she arrived?\u201d\r\n\r\nSo, a useful way to think about it is: Nepali simple past signals past completion, but it is also widely used for recent \u2018news\u2019 or situation-change updates where English commonly chooses the present perfect.\r\n

      1. How Simple Past Forms Are Built<\/h3>\r\nIn Nepali, simple past verb forms are built from two pieces: a past stem and a past ending. The stem carries the main verb meaning (for example \u201cgo,\u201d \u201ccome,\u201d \u201cread,\u201d \u201cwrite\u201d), and it usually stays consistent across the different subject forms. The ending then attaches to that stem and changes to match the subject\u2014\u201cI,\u201d \u201cyou,\u201d \u201che\/she,\u201d \u201cwe,\u201d or \u201cthey.\u201d In other words, Nepali expresses \u201cwho did it\u201d mainly through the ending, not by changing the whole verb each time. Once you know the correct past stem, you can form many past-tense sentences simply by adding the appropriate subject ending.\r\n

      [table id=288 \/]<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      2. Past tense verb bases<\/h3>\r\n

      A) Regular past bases<\/h4>\r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n
      \r\n\r\nFor a large proportion of Nepali verbs\u2014including both C-verbs (stems ending in a consonant) and V-verbs (stems ending in a vowel)\u2014the stem used in the present also serves as the stem in the simple past. Morphologically, a practical default procedure is to take the dictionary (citation) form ending in \u2013\u0928\u0941 (-nu<\/em>) and remove \u2013\u0928\u0941, yielding the verb\u2019s working stem\/base. In the simple past, this base typically remains unchanged; past tense is expressed by attaching a subject-agreeing past suffix (e.g., -\u090f\u0901, -\u092f\u094b, -\u090f), which encodes person and number (and, in some third-person contexts, gender).\r\n\r\n[table id=289 \/]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/article><\/div>\r\nVV-verbs (double-Vowel verbs) have a present stem that includes a vowel + u sound, like \u0906\u0909- (\u0101u<\/em>-), \u092a\u093f\u0909- (piu-), or \u092a\u0915\u093e\u0909- (pak\u0101u<\/em>-). In the simple past, Nepali usually makes the stem shorter: the -u part disappears. After that, you add the same regular past endings (like -\u090f\u0901, -\u092f\u094b, -\u090f).\r\n\r\n[table id=290 \/]\r\n

      B) Irregular past bases<\/h4>\r\nA small set of very common verbs does not follow the default stem rule (\u201cdrop \u2013\u0928\u0941 (-nu<\/em>) and use that base in the past\u201d) in a straightforward way. Some verbs show a stem change (often a vowel change), some are suppletive (a completely different past stem), and \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941 \u201cto be\u201d uses two past stems with a meaning contrast. Because these verbs appear constantly in beginner texts and classroom reporting, it is efficient to learn their past stems as listed.\r\n\r\n[table id=291 \/]\r\n

      3. Past tense verb endings<\/h3>\r\nIn Nepali, the simple past tense is formed by taking a verb\u2019s past stem (base) and adding a subject-agreement ending. The choice of ending depends on who the subject is (person and number), and in some third-person forms there is also a feminine vs. default distinction. Because the same endings recur across many verbs, it is most efficient to learn them as a conjugation paradigm (a fixed set of endings that you \u201cplug into\u201d once the stem is known). The same paradigm also has negative counterparts.\r\n\r\n[table id=292 \/]\r\n\r\n[table id=293 \/]\r\n\r\n[table id=294 \/]\r\n

      The simple past forms of 'hunu<\/em>' (to be)<\/h3>\r\nThe table lists both past series (\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b-series and \u092d\u092f\u094b-series) for the same set of pronouns, and it shows the matching negative forms side by side (for example, \u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928 vs \u092d\u090f\u0928). The main point to notice is that for respectful subjects\u2014\u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942\u2014Nepali usually does not use the plain forms \u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\/\u092d\u092f\u094b. Instead, it uses the honorific past forms \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (affirmative) and \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (negative).\r\n\r\n[table id=295 \/]\r\n

      Transitive and Intransitive Verbs<\/h2>\r\nTransitive and intransitive verbs are two broad verb types in Nepali, and the difference matters in the simple past because many transitive past sentences mark the subject with \u2013\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>).\r\n\r\nA transitive verb takes a direct object\u2014something the action is done to. You see something, read something, write something, eat something, make something, give something, etc. Because the action affects an object, these verbs are transitive.\r\n\r\nAn intransitive verb does not take a direct object. Many intransitives describe movement (go, come, arrive), posture (sit, stand), or change of state (fall, become, happen). You can go to a place or come from a place, but that place is a location (often marked with -m\u0101<\/em> \u201cin\/to\u201d or -dekhi<\/em> \u201cfrom\u201d), not a direct object.\r\n

      Transitive verbs and -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) in the simple past<\/h3>\r\nIn Nepali, the subject of a transitive verb in the simple past is commonly marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>). This marker identifies the subject as the agent\u2014the intentional \u201cdoer\u201d of a completed action\u2014especially when the clause includes a direct object (something that is acted on). From a linguistic perspective, -\u0932\u0947 is an agentive\/instrumental postposition with an older \u201cby\/with\u201d flavour, which is why it behaves like a postposition rather than a verbal ending. Because -\u0932\u0947 is a postposition, it attaches to the oblique form of the subject. With many nouns this change is not visible, but with pronouns the oblique stem is often different. Two very common pronouns have special-looking forms: \u092e (ma<\/em>) \u2192 \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 (maile<\/em>) and \u090a (\u016b<\/em>) \u2192 \u0909\u0938\u0932\u0947 (usle<\/em>). Most other pronouns follow a more transparent \u201cpronoun + -\u0932\u0947\u201d pattern, for example \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0947 (tim\u012ble<\/em>), \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303le<\/em>), \u092f\u094b (yo<\/em>) \u2192 \u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (yasle<\/em>), \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (tyo<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u094d\u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (tasle<\/em>), and the agentive question form \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947? (kasle<\/em>?) meaning \u201cwho (as the doer)?\u201d\r\n\r\nThe list below gives the most useful pronoun + -\u0932\u0947 forms you will see in beginner texts and dialogues.\r\n\r\n[table id=296 \/]\r\n\r\nThese examples illustrate the transitive simple past pattern in Nepali. Because each sentence includes a direct object (\u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e \u201cdoor,\u201d \u0915\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c \u201cbook\u201d) and a subject who performs an action on that object, the subject is marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) (e.g., \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947, \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0932\u0947). The verb then appears in a past form that matches the level of respect: plain past for \u201cI\u201d (\u0917\u0930\u0947\u0901, \u0916\u094b\u0932\u0947\u0901, \u092a\u0922\u0947\u0901) and honorific past for polite \u201cyou\u201d and respectful third person (\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u092a\u0922\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b).\r\n\r\n[table id=297 \/]\r\n\r\nIn these examples, the verbs are intransitive (they do not take a direct object). The sentences describe movement (go) or posture\/change of position (stand up, sit), so the subject is not marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) in the simple past. Notice that the verb still changes for respect: the plain subject uses plain past (\u0909\u0920\u0947\u0901, \u092c\u0938\u0947\u0901, \u0917\u090f\u0901), while the honorific subject uses honorific past (\u0909\u0920\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b).\r\n\r\n[table id=298 \/]\r\n

      Further Uses of -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>)<\/h2>\r\n

      Although -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) is best known for marking the agent in transitive past clauses (ergative pattern), it is more useful to think of -\u0932\u0947 as an \u201cagentive \/ instrumental\u201d marker. In other words, -\u0932\u0947 does not inherently mark tense. Instead, it marks a semantic role\u2014most often (i) a doer\/initiator, (ii) a questioned doer, (iii) an instrument\/tool, or (iv) a cause\/force. Because these are role-marking functions, -\u0932\u0947 can appear with present, past, future, habitual, and even non-finite contexts, depending on the construction.<\/p>\r\n

      Below are several high-frequency patterns where -\u0932\u0947 appears without being tied to \u201cpast transitive agent\u201d meaning.<\/p>\r\n\r\n

      1) typical agent in habitual \/ generic statements<\/h3>\r\n

      In some contexts, -\u0932\u0947 marks a \u201ctypical\u201d or characteristic agent\u2014who generally does the action\u2014especially in generic statements, instructions, and habitual descriptions. The time reference comes from aspect\/tense marking on the verb (or from context), not from -\u0932\u0947.<\/p>\r\n[table id=299 \/]\r\n\r\nNote: many speakers will prefer no -\u0932\u0947 in non-past clauses in casual style, but you will still hear -\u0932\u0947 when the speaker is foregrounding the doer as an initiator (who is responsible, who typically does it, who should do it).\r\n

      2) questioned agent: \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 (kasle<\/em>) \u201cwho (did it) \/ who (is the one that\u2026)\u201d<\/h3>\r\n

      When the speaker questions the agent\/doer, -\u0932\u0947 is extremely common on the interrogative pronoun \u0915\u0938 \u201cwho\u201d \u2192 \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u201cwho (as agent\/doer).\u201d This is true even when the clause is not specifically past.<\/p>\r\n[table id=300 \/]\r\n\r\nThis pattern is high-frequency in conversation because it directly targets responsibility\/agency.\r\n

      3) instrument \/ means: \u201cwith\/by using X\u201d<\/h3>\r\n

      One of the most common non-ergative uses of -\u0932\u0947 is marking the instrument or means used to carry out an action\u2014similar to \u201cwith\u201d \/ \u201cby means of\u201d in English.<\/p>\r\n[table id=301 \/]<\/span>\r\n\r\nTip for learners: the verb\u2019s tense\/aspect tells you when the event happens; -\u0932\u0947 only tells you what served as the tool\/means.\r\n

      4) cause \/ force: \u201cbecause of \/ due to \/ by the effect of X\u201d<\/h3>\r\n

      Nepali often uses -\u0932\u0947 to mark a cause, trigger, or natural force\u2014especially when something happens due to an external condition rather than a deliberate human agent. This is very common with illness, weather, heat\/cold, alcohol, stress, and other \u201cforces\u201d that produce an effect.<\/p>\r\n[table id=302 \/]\r\n\r\nIn these clauses, -\u0932\u0947 is not saying \u201cpast agent\u201d; it is identifying the source of causation.\r\n

      Honorific -\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) and -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b<\/em>) in Respectful Address<\/h2>\r\n-\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) is a common Nepali honorific used to show respect when addressing or referring to someone. It is typically attached to a personal name and functions as a polite marker similar to \u201cMr.\/Ms.\u201d in English, but more flexible in everyday speech. Grammatically, -\u091c\u0940 behaves like an honorific clitic\/suffix: it does not change tense, number, or the core meaning of the sentence; instead, it adds a social meaning\u2014respect, formality, and distance. In direct address (vocative use), it helps make greetings and requests sound appropriately polite, especially when speaking to elders, guests, teachers, or someone you do not know well.\r\n\r\n-\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) is a common honorific used with names and kinship terms to add respect and politeness.\r\n\r\n[table id=303 \/]\r\n\r\n-\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b<\/em>) is a more respectful honorific commonly used with titles\/roles, especially in formal settings.\r\n\r\n[table id=304 \/]\r\n\r\n<\/header>","rendered":"
      \n

      Commands and Requests<\/h2>\n
      \n

      In Nepali, imperative forms change according to the relationship between speaker and listener. Unlike English\u2014where politeness is added with words like please or indirect phrasing\u2014Nepali encodes politeness directly in the verb ending. The same command can sound informal, neutral, polite, or overly blunt depending on the form used.<\/p>\n

      To use imperatives correctly, learners must make two decisions:<\/p>\n

        \n
      1. Choose the appropriate \u201cyou-level.\u201d
        \nNepali distinguishes between familiar, informal, and respectful second-person forms. Most beginners rely on the polite \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>) form, which is safe in everyday interaction.<\/li>\n
      2. Select the matching imperative pattern.
        \nEach \u201cyou-level\u201d has its own verb ending, and this choice determines whether the sentence functions as a direct command, a polite request, or a gentle suggestion.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Because imperative forms are strongly tied to social norms, choosing the wrong level may sound rude or too casual even if grammatically correct. Mastering these forms helps learners communicate naturally and respectfully in common situations such as classroom use, shopping, travel, and meeting new people.<\/p>\n

        <\/p>\n

        Table 9.4.1 \u2013 Politeness Levels and \u201cYou\u201d Forms<\/h2>\n

        Nepali commonly uses four levels when giving directions. Speakers often omit the pronoun, but the verb form still shows the level.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nTypical use<\/th>\nLevel<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\nta\u0303<\/em><\/td>\nvery intimate or rude; scolding; avoid as a learner<\/td>\nLow<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\ntim\u012b<\/em><\/td>\nfamiliar; friends, peers<\/td>\nMiddle<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\ntap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em><\/td>\npolite\/respectful; safest default<\/td>\nHigh<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\nhajur<\/em><\/td>\nvery respectful; elders, monastics, senior officials<\/td>\nSuper-Polite<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

        Table 9.4.2 \u2013 Four imperative levels<\/h2>\n

        These are the common command\/request forms using \u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941 (garnu).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nNepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nApproximate meaning<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\n\u0917\u0930\u094d<\/td>\ngar<\/em><\/td>\nDo! (very direct)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\n\u0917\u0930<\/td>\ngara<\/em><\/td>\nDo! (familiar)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\n\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d<\/td>\ngarnuhos<\/em><\/td>\nPlease do. (polite)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\n\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e<\/td>\ngarnuhol\u0101<\/em><\/td>\nPlease would you do\u2026? (very deferential)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        Table 9.4.3 \u2013 Negative imperatives with na-<\/h2>\n

        To say \u201cdon\u2019t\u2026,\u201d Nepali adds \u0928- (na-) to the imperative form.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nNepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nApproximate meaning<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\n\u0928\u0917\u0930\u094d<\/td>\nnagar<\/em><\/td>\nDon\u2019t!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\n\u0928\u0917\u0930<\/td>\nnagara<\/em><\/td>\nDon\u2019t do!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\n\u0928\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d<\/td>\nnagarnuhos<\/em><\/td>\nPlease don\u2019t.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\n\u0928\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e<\/td>\nnagarnuhol\u0101<\/em><\/td>\nPlease would you not\u2026?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        Imperative formation by verb class<\/h3>\n

        At the High and Super-Polite levels, imperatives are largely built from the dictionary form (\u2013\u0928\u0941 \/ \u2013nu<\/em>) plus a respectful suffix. The biggest verb-class differences show up in the Low and Middle levels, which are formed from a working base.<\/p>\n

        1) C-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\n

        For many C-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a consonant), Nepali imperatives come in clear politeness levels. The low imperative is often just the bare base and can sound abrupt in everyday speech. To soften it, speakers commonly use a middle imperative, which adds a short \u201csupport\u201d vowel (often heard as -a<\/em>) so the command sounds smoother and more conversational. For polite and respectful situations, Nepali typically uses the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus a polite ending: \u2013nuhos<\/em> for standard polite commands and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-politer, more deferential requests.<\/p>\n

        Table 9.4.4 \u2013 Imperative Forms of basnu \u201cto sit\u201d (by politeness level)<\/h2>\n

        A quick reference to basnu (C-Verb) in four politeness levels, showing matching affirmative and negative forms (na- for \u201cdon\u2019t\u201d).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nAffirmative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938\u094d (bas<\/em>)<\/td>\nSit!<\/td>\n\u0928\u092c\u0938\u094d (na bas<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t sit!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938 (basa<\/em>)<\/td>\nSit (okay)!<\/td>\n\u0928\u092c\u0938 (na basa<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t sit (okay)!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (basnuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease sit.<\/td>\n\u0928\u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (na basnuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease don\u2019t sit.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (basnuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you sit\u2026?<\/td>\n\u0928\u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (na basnuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you not sit\u2026?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        2) V-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\n

        For many V-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a single vowel), Nepali imperatives also follow clear politeness levels. The low imperative is simply the bare base and can sound direct. To make the command friendlier in casual conversation, speakers often use a middle imperative by adding the informal marker –\u016b<\/em>. In polite and respectful contexts, Nepali again uses the dictionary form (ending in –nu<\/em>) plus polite endings: \u2013nuhos<\/em> for standard polite requests and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-polite, more deferential requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na-.<\/p>\n

        \n

        Table 9.4.5 \u2013 Imperative Forms of (kh\u0101nu) \u201cto eat\u201d (by politeness level)<\/h2>\n

        A quick reference to kh\u0101nu (V-Verb) across four politeness levels, with matching affirmative and negative forms (negative uses na- \u201cdon\u2019t\u201d).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nAffirmative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e (kh\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nEat!<\/td>\n\u0928\u0916\u093e (na kh\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t eat!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e\u090a (kh\u0101\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\nEat (okay)!<\/td>\n\u0928\u0916\u093e\u090a (na kh\u0101\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t eat (okay)!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (kh\u0101nuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease eat.<\/td>\n\u0928\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (na kh\u0101nuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease don\u2019t eat.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (kh\u0101nuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you eat\u2026?<\/td>\n\u0928\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (na kh\u0101nuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you not eat\u2026?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        3) VV-Verb Imperatives<\/h4>\n

        For many VV-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a vowel sequence, such as \u0101u<\/em>– or piu<\/em>-), Nepali imperatives show a small but important difference at the casual levels. In the low imperative, speakers often use a shortened \u201ccall form\u201d by dropping the final –u<\/em> element (for example, \u0101<\/em> \u201ccome!\u201d and pi<\/em> \u201cdrink!\u201d). To make the command sound friendlier and more conversational, the middle imperative typically adds –\u016b<\/em>. In polite and respectful contexts, VV-verbs follow the regular pattern: the dictionary form (ending in –nu<\/em>) plus \u2013nuhos <\/em>for standard polite requests and \u2013nuhol\u0101<\/em> for extra-polite requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na<\/em>-.<\/p>\n

        Table 9.4.6 \u2013 Imperative Forms of (piunu) \u201cto drink\u201d (by politeness level)<\/h2>\n

        A quick reference to piunu (VV-Verb) across four politeness levels, with matching affirmative and negative forms (negative uses na- \u201cdon\u2019t\u201d).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Addressee form<\/th>\nAffirmative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u0924\u0901<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f (pi<\/em>)<\/td>\nDrink.<\/td>\n\u0928\u092a\u093f (na pi<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t drink.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f\u090a (pi\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\nDrink (okay)! \/ Have some.<\/td>\n\u0928\u092a\u093f\u090a (na pi\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\nDon\u2019t drink (okay)!<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f\u0909\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (piunuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease drink.<\/td>\n\u0928\u092a\u093f\u0909\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (na piunuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease don\u2019t drink.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u091c\u0941\u0930<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f\u0909\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (piunuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you drink\u2026?<\/td>\n\u0928\u092a\u093f\u0909\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0932\u093e (na piunuhol\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\nPlease would you not drink\u2026?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n<\/header>\n

        Irregular Imperative Bases<\/h3>\n

        A small set of very common verbs have lexicalized (memorized) low and middle imperative bases. In other words, instead of following the usual base-building rules, these verbs use special short forms that learners should simply learn as fixed commands. The key point is that this irregularity mainly affects the low and middle levels. The high (polite) imperative remains regular for these verbs: use the dictionary form (ending in -nu<\/em>) plus \u2013nuhos<\/em> to form polite requests.<\/p>\n

        Table 9.4.7 \u2013 Irregular Imperative Bases (Common Verbs)<\/h2>\n

        Common verbs with special low\/middle command forms; the polite (high) form stays regular with \u2013nuhos.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
        Verb<\/th>\nLow<\/th>\nMiddle<\/th>\nHigh <\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
        \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941 (j\u0101nu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e (j\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u090a (j\u0101\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (j\u0101nuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0926\u093f\u0928\u0941 (dinu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u0947 (de<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u0947\u090a (de\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u093f\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (dinuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0932\u093f\u0928\u0941 (linu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u0947 (le<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u0947\u090a (le\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u093f\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (linuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941 (\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906 (\u0101<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u090a (\u0101\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (\u0101unuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
        \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941 (hunu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u094b (ho<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u094b\u090a (ho\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (hunuhos<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

        <\/p>\n

        <\/header>\n
        Note on Spoken Nepali: In everyday conversation, High imperatives often undergo phonological reduction while remaining polite:<\/p>\n
          \n
        • \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (kh\u0101nuhos<\/em>) \u2192 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u094d (kh\u0101nus<\/em>)<\/li>\n
        • \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0939\u094b\u0938\u094d (basnuhos<\/em>) \u2192 \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u0938\u094d (basnus<\/em>)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n

          These reduced forms are common in speech and sound natural in many contexts.<\/p>\n<\/header>\n

          \n

          Simple past tense<\/h2>\n

          In Nepali, the simple past is the main past tense used to describe events, actions, and situations that are understood as completed. It is the default tense for reporting what happened, what someone did, or what was true at that time. In many cases, it matches the English simple past (for example: I went, she came, they ate, it was). However, Nepali also uses the simple past very naturally for recent updates\u2014when something has just happened and the speaker is sharing new information. In these situations, English often prefers the present perfect (has\/have), but Nepali still uses a simple past form, as in \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u094b (p\u0101n\u012b \u0101yo.<\/em>) \u201cIt started raining \/ It has started raining\u201d and \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b? (uh\u0101\u0303 \u0101unubhayo?<\/em>) \u201cDid he\/she arrive? \/ Has he\/she arrived?\u201d<\/p>\n

          So, a useful way to think about it is: Nepali simple past signals past completion, but it is also widely used for recent \u2018news\u2019 or situation-change updates where English commonly chooses the present perfect.<\/p>\n

          1. How Simple Past Forms Are Built<\/h3>\n

          In Nepali, simple past verb forms are built from two pieces: a past stem and a past ending. The stem carries the main verb meaning (for example \u201cgo,\u201d \u201ccome,\u201d \u201cread,\u201d \u201cwrite\u201d), and it usually stays consistent across the different subject forms. The ending then attaches to that stem and changes to match the subject\u2014\u201cI,\u201d \u201cyou,\u201d \u201che\/she,\u201d \u201cwe,\u201d or \u201cthey.\u201d In other words, Nepali expresses \u201cwho did it\u201d mainly through the ending, not by changing the whole verb each time. Once you know the correct past stem, you can form many past-tense sentences simply by adding the appropriate subject ending.<\/p>\n

          \n

          Table 9.4.8 \u2013 Simple Past: Stem + Ending (How Forms Are Built)<\/h2>\n

          The table shows how simple past verbs are formed by past stem + subject ending.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Past stem<\/th>\nEnding<\/th>\nResult<\/th>\nMeaning<\/th>\nWhat it shows<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092a\u0922- (pa\u1e0dh-<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0901 (-e\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u0922\u0947\u0901 (pa\u1e0dhe\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\nI read<\/td>\nregular stem + ending<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092a\u0922- (pa\u1e0dh-<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u092f\u094b (-yo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u0922\u094d\u092f\u094b (pa\u1e0dhyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nJohn read<\/td>\nsame stem + 3rd sg ending<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0917- (ga-<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0901 (-e\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0901 (gae\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\nI went<\/td>\nirregular stem + 1st sg ending<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0917- (ga-<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u092f\u094b (-yo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u092f\u094b (gayo<\/em>)<\/td>\nJohn went<\/td>\nsame stem, different ending<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          2. Past tense verb bases<\/h3>\n

          A) Regular past bases<\/h4>\n
          \n
          \n
          \n
          \n
          \n
          \n
          \n
          \n

          For a large proportion of Nepali verbs\u2014including both C-verbs (stems ending in a consonant) and V-verbs (stems ending in a vowel)\u2014the stem used in the present also serves as the stem in the simple past. Morphologically, a practical default procedure is to take the dictionary (citation) form ending in \u2013\u0928\u0941 (-nu<\/em>) and remove \u2013\u0928\u0941, yielding the verb\u2019s working stem\/base. In the simple past, this base typically remains unchanged; past tense is expressed by attaching a subject-agreeing past suffix (e.g., -\u090f\u0901, -\u092f\u094b, -\u090f), which encodes person and number (and, in some third-person contexts, gender).<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.9 \u2013 Regular Past Stems (C-Verbs and V-Verbs)<\/h2>\n

          Verbs whose past stem is the same as the basic stem (drop \u2013nu, then add endings).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Dictionary form<\/th>\nPresent stem (base)<\/th>\nPast stem<\/th>\nExample: 3rd sg past<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941 (basnu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938- (bas-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938- (bas-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0938\u094d\u092f\u094b (basyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto sit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0916\u0947\u0932\u094d\u0928\u0941 (khelnu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u0947\u0932- (khel-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u0947\u0932- (khel-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u0947\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b (khelyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto play<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092c\u094b\u0932\u094d\u0928\u0941 (bolnu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u094b\u0932- (bol-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u094b\u0932- (bol-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u094b\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b (bolyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto speak \/ to talk<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0941 (kh\u0101nu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e- (kh\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e- (kh\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0916\u093e\u092f\u094b (kh\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto eat<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0926\u093f\u0928\u0941 (dinu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u093f- (di-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u093f- (di-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0926\u093f\u092f\u094b (diyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto give<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0932\u093f\u0928\u0941 (linu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u093f- (li-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u093f- (li-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b (liyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto take<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<\/div>\n

          VV-verbs (double-Vowel verbs) have a present stem that includes a vowel + u sound, like \u0906\u0909- (\u0101u<\/em>-), \u092a\u093f\u0909- (piu-), or \u092a\u0915\u093e\u0909- (pak\u0101u<\/em>-). In the simple past, Nepali usually makes the stem shorter: the -u part disappears. After that, you add the same regular past endings (like -\u090f\u0901, -\u092f\u094b, -\u090f).<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.10 \u2013 VV-Verbs in the Past (u-Drop Past Stems)<\/h2>\n

          VV-verbs (double-Vowel verbs) have a present stem that includes a vowel + u sound, like \u0906\u0909- (\u0101u-), \u092a\u093f\u0909- (piu-), or \u092a\u0915\u093e\u0909- (pak\u0101u-). In the simple past, Nepali usually makes the stem shorter: the -u part disappears. After that, you add the same regular past endings (like -\u090f\u0901, -\u092f\u094b, -\u090f).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Dictionary form<\/th>\nPresent stem (base)<\/th>\nPast stem (short)<\/th>\nExample: 3rd sg past<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941 (\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0909- \/ \u0906\u090a- (\u0101u-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906- (\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u092f\u094b (\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto come<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092a\u093f\u0909\u0928\u0941 (piunu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f\u0909- \/ \u092a\u093f\u090a- (piu-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f- (pi-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u093f\u092f\u094b (piyo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto drink<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092a\u0915\u093e\u0909\u0928\u0941 (pak\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u0915\u093e\u0909- (pak\u0101u-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u0915\u093e- (pak\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092a\u0915\u093e\u092f\u094b (pak\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto cook<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0909\u0928\u0941 (ban\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0928\u093e\u0909- (ban\u0101u-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0928\u093e- (ban\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u094b (ban\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto make<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0909\u0928\u0941 (ly\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0909- (ly\u0101u-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e- (ly\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u094b (ly\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto bring<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0909\u0928\u0941 (sik\u0101unu<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0909- \/ \u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090a- (sik\u0101u-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e- (sik\u0101-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0938\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f\u094b (sik\u0101yo<\/em>)<\/td>\nto teach<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          B) Irregular past bases<\/h4>\n

          A small set of very common verbs does not follow the default stem rule (\u201cdrop \u2013\u0928\u0941 (-nu<\/em>) and use that base in the past\u201d) in a straightforward way. Some verbs show a stem change (often a vowel change), some are suppletive (a completely different past stem), and \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941 \u201cto be\u201d uses two past stems with a meaning contrast. Because these verbs appear constantly in beginner texts and classroom reporting, it is efficient to learn their past stems as listed.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.11 \u2013 Irregular Past Stems<\/h2>\n

          Very common verbs with stem changes (learn these past stems as fixed).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Dictionary form<\/th>\nMeaning<\/th>\nPast stem<\/th>\n3rd sg. past<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u0930\u0941\u0928\u0941 (runu<\/em>)<\/td>\nto cry \/ weep<\/td>\n\u0930\u094b- (ro-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0930\u094b\u092f\u094b (royo<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0927\u0941\u0928\u0941 (dhunu<\/em>)<\/td>\nto wash<\/td>\n\u0927\u094b- (dho-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0927\u094b\u092f\u094b (dhoyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941 (j\u0101nu<\/em>)<\/td>\nto go<\/td>\n\u0917- (ga-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u092f\u094b (gayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941 (hunu<\/em>)<\/td>\nto be<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f- \/ \u092d- (thi- \/ bha-<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b \/ \u092d\u092f\u094b (thiyo \/ bhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          3. Past tense verb endings<\/h3>\n

          In Nepali, the simple past tense is formed by taking a verb\u2019s past stem (base) and adding a subject-agreement ending. The choice of ending depends on who the subject is (person and number), and in some third-person forms there is also a feminine vs. default distinction. Because the same endings recur across many verbs, it is most efficient to learn them as a conjugation paradigm (a fixed set of endings that you \u201cplug into\u201d once the stem is known). The same paradigm also has negative counterparts.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.12 \u2013 Simple Past Endings (Affirmative and Negative)<\/h2>\n

          The core past endings by subject\u2014a reusable pattern for many verbs.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Pronoun(s)<\/th>\nAffirmative ending<\/th>\nNegative ending<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e (ma<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0901 (-e\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0907\u0928\u0901 (-ina\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 (h\u0101m\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u092f\u094c\u0901 (-yau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0928\u094c\u0901 (-enau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u092f\u094c (-yau<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0928\u094c (-enau<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (-nubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (-nubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \/ \u092f\u094b \/ \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (\u016b \/ yo \/ tyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u092f\u094b (-yo<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0928 (-ena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940 \/ \u092f\u093f\u0928\u0940 \/ \u0924\u093f\u0928\u0940 (un\u012b \/ yin\u012b \/ tin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0907\u0928 (-in<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0907\u0928\u0928\u094d (-inan<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 (uh\u0101\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (-nubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (-nubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 (un\u012bhar\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f (-e<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u090f\u0928\u0928\u094d (-enan<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (-nubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n-\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (-nubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.13 \u2013 Simple Past of \u0101unu \u201cto come\u201d<\/h2>\n

          A complete conjugation model for a VV-verb (\u0101- past stem).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Subject \/ Pronoun<\/th>\nAffirmative<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e (ma<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u090f\u0901<\/td>\n\u0101e\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u0907\u0928\u0901<\/td>\n\u0101\u2019ina\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 (h\u0101m\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u092f\u094c\u0901<\/td>\n\u0101yau\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u090f\u0928\u094c\u0901<\/td>\n\u0101enau\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u092f\u094c<\/td>\n\u0101yau<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u090f\u0928\u094c<\/td>\n\u0101enau<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\n\u0101unubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\n\u0101unubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \/ \u092f\u094b \/ \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (\u016b \/ yo \/ tyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u092f\u094b<\/td>\n\u0101yo<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u090f\u0928<\/td>\n\u0101ena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940 \/ \u092f\u093f\u0928\u0940 \/ \u0924\u093f\u0928\u0940 (un\u012b \/ yin\u012b \/ tin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0907\u0928<\/td>\n\u0101\u2019in<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u0907\u0928\u0928\u094d<\/td>\n\u0101\u2019inan<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 (uh\u0101\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\n\u0101unubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\n\u0101unubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 (un\u012bhar\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u090f<\/td>\n\u0101e<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u090f\u0928\u0928\u094d<\/td>\n\u0101enan<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303har\u016b \u0101unubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u0906\u0909\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303har\u016b \u0101unubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.14 \u2013 Simple Past of j\u0101nu \u201cto go\u201d (Irregular Past Stem)<\/h2>\n

          \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941 has an irregular plain past stem: \u0917- (ga-). So plain past forms use \u0917- + ending.
          \n<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Subject \/ Pronoun<\/th>\nAffirmative<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e (ma<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0901<\/td>\ngae\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u0907\u0928\u0901<\/td>\nga\u2019ina\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 (h\u0101m\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u092f\u094c\u0901<\/td>\ngayau\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0928\u094c\u0901<\/td>\ngaenau\u0303<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u092f\u094c<\/td>\ngayau<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0928\u094c<\/td>\ngaenau<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\nj\u0101nubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\nj\u0101nubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \/ \u092f\u094b \/ \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (\u016b \/ yo \/ tyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u092f\u094b<\/td>\ngayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0928<\/td>\ngaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940 \/ \u092f\u093f\u0928\u0940 \/ \u0924\u093f\u0928\u0940 (un\u012b \/ yin\u012b \/ tin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u0908<\/td>\nga\u012b<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u0907\u0928<\/td>\nga\u2019in<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 (uh\u0101\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\nj\u0101nubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\nj\u0101nubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 (un\u012bhar\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0917\u090f<\/td>\ngae<\/em><\/td>\n\u0917\u090f\u0928\u0928\u094d<\/td>\ngaenan<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303har\u016b j\u0101nubhayo<\/em><\/td>\n\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303har\u016b j\u0101nubhaena<\/em><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          The simple past forms of ‘hunu<\/em>‘ (to be)<\/h3>\n

          The table lists both past series (\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b-series and \u092d\u092f\u094b-series) for the same set of pronouns, and it shows the matching negative forms side by side (for example, \u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928 vs \u092d\u090f\u0928). The main point to notice is that for respectful subjects\u2014\u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942\u2014Nepali usually does not use the plain forms \u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\/\u092d\u092f\u094b. Instead, it uses the honorific past forms \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (affirmative) and \u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (negative).<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.15 \u2013 Past of hunu: thiyo vs bhayo (State vs Change)<\/h2>\n

          The table compares the two past series: \u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b-forms (past state) vs \u092d\u092f\u094b-forms (change\/outcome), with negatives.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Pronoun(s)<\/th>\nThiyo-series (state)<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\nBhayo-series (change\/outcome)<\/th>\nNegative<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e (ma<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f\u0901 (thie\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u0907\u0928\u0901 (thi\u2019ina\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f\u0901 (bhae\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u0907\u0928\u0901 (bha\u2019ina\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 (h\u0101m\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094c\u0901 (thiyau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928\u094c\u0901 (thienau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u092f\u094c\u0901 (bhayau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f\u0928\u094c\u0901 (bhaenau\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094c (thiyau<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928\u094c (thienau<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u092f\u094c (bhayau<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f\u0928\u094c (bhaenau<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \/ \u092f\u094b \/ \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b
          \n(\u016b \/ yo \/ tyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n          		\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b (thiyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928 (thiena<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u092f\u094b (bhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f\u0928 (bhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940 \/ \u092f\u093f\u0928\u0940 \/ \u0924\u093f\u0928\u0940
          \n(un\u012b \/ yin\u012b \/ tin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n          		\u0925\u093f\u0908 (thi'\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u0907\u0928 (thi\u2019in<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u0908 (bha\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u0907\u0928 (bha\u2019in<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 (uh\u0101\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 (un\u012bhar\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f (thie<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0925\u093f\u090f\u0928\u0928\u094d (thienan<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f (bhae<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092d\u090f\u0928\u0928\u094d (bhaenan<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b (hunubhayo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u0941\u0928\u0941\u092d\u090f\u0928 (hunubhaena<\/em>)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Transitive and Intransitive Verbs<\/h2>\n

          Transitive and intransitive verbs are two broad verb types in Nepali, and the difference matters in the simple past because many transitive past sentences mark the subject with \u2013\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>).<\/p>\n

          A transitive verb takes a direct object\u2014something the action is done to. You see something, read something, write something, eat something, make something, give something, etc. Because the action affects an object, these verbs are transitive.<\/p>\n

          An intransitive verb does not take a direct object. Many intransitives describe movement (go, come, arrive), posture (sit, stand), or change of state (fall, become, happen). You can go to a place or come from a place, but that place is a location (often marked with -m\u0101<\/em> \u201cin\/to\u201d or -dekhi<\/em> \u201cfrom\u201d), not a direct object.<\/p>\n

          Transitive verbs and -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) in the simple past<\/h3>\n

          In Nepali, the subject of a transitive verb in the simple past is commonly marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>). This marker identifies the subject as the agent\u2014the intentional \u201cdoer\u201d of a completed action\u2014especially when the clause includes a direct object (something that is acted on). From a linguistic perspective, -\u0932\u0947 is an agentive\/instrumental postposition with an older \u201cby\/with\u201d flavour, which is why it behaves like a postposition rather than a verbal ending. Because -\u0932\u0947 is a postposition, it attaches to the oblique form of the subject. With many nouns this change is not visible, but with pronouns the oblique stem is often different. Two very common pronouns have special-looking forms: \u092e (ma<\/em>) \u2192 \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 (maile<\/em>) and \u090a (\u016b<\/em>) \u2192 \u0909\u0938\u0932\u0947 (usle<\/em>). Most other pronouns follow a more transparent \u201cpronoun + -\u0932\u0947\u201d pattern, for example \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0947 (tim\u012ble<\/em>), \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303le<\/em>), \u092f\u094b (yo<\/em>) \u2192 \u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (yasle<\/em>), \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (tyo<\/em>) \u2192 \u0924\u094d\u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (tasle<\/em>), and the agentive question form \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947? (kasle<\/em>?) meaning \u201cwho (as the doer)?\u201d<\/p>\n

          The list below gives the most useful pronoun + -\u0932\u0947 forms you will see in beginner texts and dialogues.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.16 \u2013 Subject + \u2013\u0932\u0947 Forms (Pronouns)<\/h2>\n

          The most useful pronoun + \u2013\u0932\u0947 forms used for past transitive subjects and \u201cwho did it?\u201d (kasle).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Pronoun (subject)<\/th>\nSubject + -\u0932\u0947<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e (ma<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 (maile<\/em>)<\/td>\nI (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 (h\u0101m\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0947 (h\u0101m\u012ble<\/em>)<\/td>\nwe (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940 (tim\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0924\u093f\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0947 (tim\u012ble<\/em>)<\/td>\nyou (MID) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947 (tap\u0101\u012b\u0303le<\/em>)<\/td>\nyou (HIGH) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a (\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0909\u0938\u0932\u0947 (usle<\/em>)<\/td>\nhe\/she (LOW) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092f\u094b (yo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (yasle<\/em>)<\/td>\nthis (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b (tyo<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0938\u0932\u0947 (tasle<\/em>)<\/td>\nthat (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940 (un\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0909\u0928\u0932\u0947 (unle<\/em>)<\/td>\nhe\/she (MID) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092f\u093f\u0928\u0940 (yin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u092f\u093f\u0928\u0932\u0947 (yinle<\/em>)<\/td>\nthis person\/these people (non-honorific) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u093f\u0928\u0940 (tin\u012b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0924\u093f\u0928\u0932\u0947 (tinle<\/em>)<\/td>\nthat person\/those people (non-honorific) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 (uh\u0101\u0303<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0932\u0947 (uh\u0101\u0303le<\/em>)<\/td>\nhe\/she (HIGH) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 (un\u012bhar\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942\u0932\u0947 (un\u012bhar\u016ble<\/em>)<\/td>\nthey (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016b<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0939\u0930\u0942\u0932\u0947 (uh\u0101\u0303har\u016ble<\/em>)<\/td>\nthey (HIGH) (did\u2026)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0915\u094b? (kas?<\/em>)<\/td>\n\u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947? (kasle?<\/em>)<\/td>\nwho (as agent)?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          These examples illustrate the transitive simple past pattern in Nepali. Because each sentence includes a direct object (\u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e \u201cdoor,\u201d \u0915\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c \u201cbook\u201d) and a subject who performs an action on that object, the subject is marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) (e.g., \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947, \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947, \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0932\u0947). The verb then appears in a past form that matches the level of respect: plain past for \u201cI\u201d (\u0917\u0930\u0947\u0901, \u0916\u094b\u0932\u0947\u0901, \u092a\u0922\u0947\u0901) and honorific past for polite \u201cyou\u201d and respectful third person (\u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u092a\u0922\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b).<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.17 \u2013 Transitive Past with \u2013\u0932\u0947<\/h2>\n

          Examples where the subject is marked with \u2013\u0932\u0947 because the verb has a direct object.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 \u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e \u092c\u0928\u094d\u0926 \u0917\u0930\u0947\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nmaile \u1e0dhok\u0101 banda gare\u0303.<\/em><\/td>\nI closed the door.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c \u0916\u094b\u0932\u0947\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nmaile kit\u0101b khol\u1ebd.<\/em><\/td>\nI opened the book.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092e\u0948\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c \u092a\u0922\u0947\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nmaile kit\u0101b pa\u1e0dhe\u0303.<\/em><\/td>\nI read the book.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0924\u092a\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0932\u0947 \u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e \u092c\u0928\u094d\u0926 \u0917\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\ntap\u0101\u012b\u0303le \u1e0dhok\u0101 banda garnubhayo.<\/em><\/td>\nYou (pol.) closed the door.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u093e\u092c \u092a\u0922\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303le kit\u0101b pa\u1e0dhnubhayo.<\/em><\/td>\nHe\/She (hon.) read the book.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          In these examples, the verbs are intransitive (they do not take a direct object). The sentences describe movement (go) or posture\/change of position (stand up, sit), so the subject is not marked with -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) in the simple past. Notice that the verb still changes for respect: the plain subject uses plain past (\u0909\u0920\u0947\u0901, \u092c\u0938\u0947\u0901, \u0917\u090f\u0901), while the honorific subject uses honorific past (\u0909\u0920\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b, \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b).<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.18 \u2013 Intransitive Past Without \u2013\u0932\u0947<\/h2>\n

          Examples of past movement\/posture verbs where \u2013\u0932\u0947 is not used.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e \u0909\u0920\u0947\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nma u\u1e6dhe\u0303.<\/em><\/td>\nI stood up.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092e \u0915\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u092c\u0938\u0947\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nma kurs\u012bm\u0101 bas\u1ebd.<\/em><\/td>\nI sat on the chair.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092e \u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e \u0917\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nma \u1e0dhok\u0101samma ga\u1ebd.<\/em><\/td>\nI went to the door.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \u0918\u0930 \u0917\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\n\u016b ghar gayo.<\/em><\/td>\nHe went home.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0928\u0940\u0939\u0930\u0942 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u092e\u093e \u0906\u090f\u0964<\/td>\nun\u012bhar\u016b kak\u1e63\u0101m\u0101 \u0101e.<\/em><\/td>\nThey came to class.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0909\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0928\u0941\u092d\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\nuh\u0101\u0303 kurs\u012bm\u0101 basnubhayo.<\/em><\/td>\nHe\/She (hon.) sat on the chair.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Further Uses of -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>)<\/h2>\n

          Although -\u0932\u0947 (-le<\/em>) is best known for marking the agent in transitive past clauses (ergative pattern), it is more useful to think of -\u0932\u0947 as an \u201cagentive \/ instrumental\u201d marker. In other words, -\u0932\u0947 does not inherently mark tense. Instead, it marks a semantic role\u2014most often (i) a doer\/initiator, (ii) a questioned doer, (iii) an instrument\/tool, or (iv) a cause\/force. Because these are role-marking functions, -\u0932\u0947 can appear with present, past, future, habitual, and even non-finite contexts, depending on the construction.<\/p>\n

          Below are several high-frequency patterns where -\u0932\u0947 appears without being tied to \u201cpast transitive agent\u201d meaning.<\/p>\n

          1) typical agent in habitual \/ generic statements<\/h3>\n

          In some contexts, -\u0932\u0947 marks a \u201ctypical\u201d or characteristic agent\u2014who generally does the action\u2014especially in generic statements, instructions, and habitual descriptions. The time reference comes from aspect\/tense marking on the verb (or from context), not from -\u0932\u0947.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.19 \u2013 \u2013\u0932\u0947 (le) in General Truths (Habit \/ Role Statements)<\/h2>\n

          The table shows \u2013\u0932\u0947 as an agent-focus marker in non-past general statements.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093e\u0909\u0901\u091b\u0928\u094d\u0964<\/td>\n\u015bik\u1e63akle pa\u1e0dh\u0101u\u0303chan.<\/em><\/td>\nTeachers teach.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0915\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0928\u0932\u0947 \u0916\u0947\u0924 \u091c\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0928\u094d\u091b\u0964<\/td>\nkis\u0101nle khet jotcha.<\/em><\/td>\nA farmer ploughs a field.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0921\u093e\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0964<\/td>\n\u1e0d\u0101k\u1e6darle bir\u0101m\u012b j\u0101\u0303ccha.<\/em><\/td>\nA doctor examines patients.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Note: many speakers will prefer no -\u0932\u0947 in non-past clauses in casual style, but you will still hear -\u0932\u0947 when the speaker is foregrounding the doer as an initiator (who is responsible, who typically does it, who should do it).<\/p>\n

          2) questioned agent: \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 (kasle<\/em>) \u201cwho (did it) \/ who (is the one that\u2026)\u201d<\/h3>\n

          When the speaker questions the agent\/doer, -\u0932\u0947 is extremely common on the interrogative pronoun \u0915\u0938 \u201cwho\u201d \u2192 \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u201cwho (as agent\/doer).\u201d This is true even when the clause is not specifically past.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.20 \u2013 Asking \u201cWho?\u201d with \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 (kasle)<\/h2>\n

          \u201cWho (as the doer)?\u201d questions typically use \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947, especially with actions.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u092d\u0928\u094d\u092f\u094b?<\/td>\nkasle bhanyo?<\/em><\/td>\nWho said that?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u0922\u094b\u0915\u093e \u0916\u094b\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b?<\/td>\nkasle \u1e0dhok\u0101 kholyo?<\/em><\/td>\nWho opened the door?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092d\u094b\u0932\u093f \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0938\u0932\u0947 \u0917\u0930\u094d\u091b?<\/td>\nbholi g\u1e5bhak\u0101rya kasle garcha?<\/em><\/td>\nWho will do the homework tomorrow?<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          This pattern is high-frequency in conversation because it directly targets responsibility\/agency.<\/p>\n

          3) instrument \/ means: \u201cwith\/by using X\u201d<\/h3>\n

          One of the most common non-ergative uses of -\u0932\u0947 is marking the instrument or means used to carry out an action\u2014similar to \u201cwith\u201d \/ \u201cby means of\u201d in English.<\/p>\n

          <\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.21 \u2013 \u2013\u0932\u0947 (le) for Instruments (\u201cwith\u201d)- as instrument (<\/h2>\n

          \u2013\u0932\u0947 can mark the tool\/body part used to do an action (\u201cwith\u201d).<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u092e \u0915\u0932\u092e\u0932\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u094d\u091b\u0941\u0964<\/td>\nma kalamle lekhchu.<\/em><\/td>\nI write with a pen.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u090a \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0915\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u091f\u094d\u091b\u0964<\/td>\n\u016b cakkule k\u0101\u1e6dcha.<\/em><\/td>\nHe\/she cuts with a knife.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0924\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0909\u0901\u091b\u094c\u0901\u0964<\/td>\nh\u0101m\u012b h\u0101tle sam\u0101u\u0303chau\u0303.<\/em><\/td>\nWe hold\/grab with our hands.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/span><\/p>\n

          Tip for learners: the verb\u2019s tense\/aspect tells you when the event happens; -\u0932\u0947 only tells you what served as the tool\/means.<\/p>\n

          4) cause \/ force: \u201cbecause of \/ due to \/ by the effect of X\u201d<\/h3>\n

          Nepali often uses -\u0932\u0947 to mark a cause, trigger, or natural force\u2014especially when something happens due to an external condition rather than a deliberate human agent. This is very common with illness, weather, heat\/cold, alcohol, stress, and other \u201cforces\u201d that produce an effect.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.22 \u2013 \u2013\u0932\u0947 (le) for Cause (\u201cbecause of\u201d)<\/h2>\n

          \u2013\u0932\u0947 can mark a cause\/reason (\u201cdue to\u201d), not an agent.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Nepali<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nEnglish<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u091c\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094b\u0932\u0947 \u090a \u0925\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\njwarole \u016b th\u0101kyo.<\/em><\/td>\nHe\/she got tired because of a fever.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u0939\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932 \u0922\u0915\u0922\u0915\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0964<\/td>\nh\u0101w\u0101le jhy\u0101l \u1e0dhak\u1e0dhak\u0101yo.<\/em><\/td>\nThe window banged because of the wind.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          In these clauses, -\u0932\u0947 is not saying \u201cpast agent\u201d; it is identifying the source of causation.<\/p>\n

          Honorific -\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) and -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b<\/em>) in Respectful Address<\/h2>\n

          -\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) is a common Nepali honorific used to show respect when addressing or referring to someone. It is typically attached to a personal name and functions as a polite marker similar to \u201cMr.\/Ms.\u201d in English, but more flexible in everyday speech. Grammatically, -\u091c\u0940 behaves like an honorific clitic\/suffix: it does not change tense, number, or the core meaning of the sentence; instead, it adds a social meaning\u2014respect, formality, and distance. In direct address (vocative use), it helps make greetings and requests sound appropriately polite, especially when speaking to elders, guests, teachers, or someone you do not know well.<\/p>\n

          -\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b<\/em>) is a common honorific used with names and kinship terms to add respect and politeness.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.23 \u2013 \u2013\u091c\u0940 (-j\u012b) in Respectful Address<\/h2>\n

          \u2013\u091c\u0940 is a common polite marker used with names and kin terms in everyday respectful speech.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Example<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nMeaning \/ when used<\/th>\nUse<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          \u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923\u091c\u0940<\/td>\nkira\u1e47j\u012b<\/em><\/td>\nKiran (respectful)<\/td>\nName + -\u091c\u0940<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u091c\u0940<\/td>\nm\u0101rth\u0101j\u012b<\/em><\/td>\nMartha (respectful)<\/td>\nName + -\u091c\u0940<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

          <\/p>\n

          -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b<\/em>) is a more respectful honorific commonly used with titles\/roles, especially in formal settings.<\/p>\n

          Table 9.4.24 \u2013 \u2013\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b) with Titles (More Formal Respect)<\/h2>\n

          -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942 (-jy\u016b) is a more respectful honorific commonly used with titles\/roles, especially in formal settings.<\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
          Use<\/th>\nExample<\/th>\nTransliteration<\/th>\nMeaning \/ when used<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n
          Title + -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942<\/td>\n\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u0947\u0938\u0930\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942<\/td>\nprophesarajy\u016b<\/em><\/td>\nProfessor (very respectful)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n
          Title + -\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942<\/td>\n\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0938\u093f\u092a\u0932\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0942<\/td>\nprinsipaljy\u016b<\/em><\/td>\nPrincipal (very respectful)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

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