{"id":5112,"date":"2025-11-26T23:11:33","date_gmt":"2025-11-27T04:11:33","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=5112"},"modified":"2025-12-07T21:47:54","modified_gmt":"2025-12-08T02:47:54","slug":"diabetes-mellitus-causes-effects-and-management","status":"web-only","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/chapter\/diabetes-mellitus-causes-effects-and-management\/","title":{"raw":"9p8 Diabetes Mellitus: Causes, Effects, and Management","rendered":"9p8 Diabetes Mellitus: Causes, Effects, and Management"},"content":{"raw":"<h1><strong>Overview of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>A condition characterized by\u00a0<strong>impaired insulin effects<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong>receptor tissue response<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Results in\u00a0<strong>cell starvation for glucose<\/strong>, leading to decreased cellular function and ATP energy production.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Causes of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<strong>Type 1 Diabetes<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Autoimmune destruction<\/strong>\u00a0of pancreatic beta cells in the\u00a0<strong>islets of Langerhans<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Leads to\u00a0<strong>severe insulin deficiency<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cells cannot uptake glucose, causing\u00a0<strong>persistent high blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0levels (hyperglycemia).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Type 2 Diabetes<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Insulin resistance<\/strong>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The\u00a0<strong>receptors<\/strong>\u00a0on tissues\u00a0<strong>do not respond<\/strong>\u00a0properly to insulin.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Despite normal or high levels of insulin, glucose uptake by cells is\u00a0<strong>impaired<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Results in\u00a0<strong>cell starvation<\/strong>, similar to type 1.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Effects of Insulin Deficiency or Resistance<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Glucose uptake<\/strong>\u00a0into cells is hindered.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Cells<\/strong>\u00a0are\u00a0<strong>starved for glucose<\/strong>, impacting ATP production.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cells switch to\u00a0<strong>alternative energy sources<\/strong>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Fat breakdown<\/strong>\u00a0(lipolysis) producing fatty acids and ketones.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Protein breakdown<\/strong> for gluconeogenesis (glucose production).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Critical Tissues &amp; Glucose Uptake by Different Cell Types<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Cell Types that <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">always<\/span> accept glucose without insulin:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Brain, kidneys, heart, intestinal cells, and exercising skeletal muscle.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Implications:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>These tissues\u00a0<strong>remain functional<\/strong>\u00a0in glucose uptake.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Others\u00a0<strong>depend on insulin<\/strong>\u00a0for glucose entry.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Clinical Implications of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>High blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0damages blood vessels, promoting\u00a0<strong>atherosclerosis<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Blood glucose range:<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>70-110 mg\/dL<\/strong>\u00a0for healthy regulation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Monitoring<\/strong>\u00a0essential, especially during exercise.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Exercise and Blood Glucose Control<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Exercise improves <strong>glucose regulation<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Specifically, exercise <strong>increases glucose uptake<\/strong> in skeletal muscles with\u00a0<strong>less insulin<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Helps\u00a0<strong>prevent hyperglycemia<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>vascular damage<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Risks of Exercise<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Hypoglycemia<\/strong>\u00a0if blood glucose drops too low during activity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Therefore,<strong> monitoring<\/strong>\u00a0blood glucose levels is important during exercise.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Symptoms of hypoglycemia:<\/strong>\u00a0Dizziness, weakness, confusion, and in severe cases,\u00a0<strong>coma<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Pathophysiological Effects of Uncontrolled Diabetes<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Elevated blood glucose damages blood vessels (<strong>macrovascular<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>microvascular<\/strong>\u00a0disease).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Increased risk of\u00a0<strong>cardiovascular disease, retinal damage, stroke<\/strong>, and\u00a0<strong>kidney failure<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h1><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/h1>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>Maintaining blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0within normal limits is crucial.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Both\u00a0<strong>insulin deficiency<\/strong> (Type 1 Diabetes) and <strong>receptor resistance<\/strong> (Type 2 Diabetes) disrupt homeostasis.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Lifestyle modifications<\/strong>\u00a0like exercise and dietary management are key to control.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Monitoring blood glucose levels<\/strong>\u00a0regularly helps prevent complications.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h1><strong>Overview of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>A condition characterized by\u00a0<strong>impaired insulin effects<\/strong>\u00a0or\u00a0<strong>receptor tissue response<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Results in\u00a0<strong>cell starvation for glucose<\/strong>, leading to decreased cellular function and ATP energy production.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Causes of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\n<p><strong>Type 1 Diabetes<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Autoimmune destruction<\/strong>\u00a0of pancreatic beta cells in the\u00a0<strong>islets of Langerhans<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Leads to\u00a0<strong>severe insulin deficiency<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Cells cannot uptake glucose, causing\u00a0<strong>persistent high blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0levels (hyperglycemia).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Type 2 Diabetes<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Insulin resistance<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li>The\u00a0<strong>receptors<\/strong>\u00a0on tissues\u00a0<strong>do not respond<\/strong>\u00a0properly to insulin.<\/li>\n<li>Despite normal or high levels of insulin, glucose uptake by cells is\u00a0<strong>impaired<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Results in\u00a0<strong>cell starvation<\/strong>, similar to type 1.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Effects of Insulin Deficiency or Resistance<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Glucose uptake<\/strong>\u00a0into cells is hindered.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cells<\/strong>\u00a0are\u00a0<strong>starved for glucose<\/strong>, impacting ATP production.<\/li>\n<li>Cells switch to\u00a0<strong>alternative energy sources<\/strong>:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Fat breakdown<\/strong>\u00a0(lipolysis) producing fatty acids and ketones.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Protein breakdown<\/strong> for gluconeogenesis (glucose production).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Critical Tissues &amp; Glucose Uptake by Different Cell Types<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cell Types that <span style=\"text-decoration: underline\">always<\/span> accept glucose without insulin:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Brain, kidneys, heart, intestinal cells, and exercising skeletal muscle.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Implications:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>These tissues\u00a0<strong>remain functional<\/strong>\u00a0in glucose uptake.<\/li>\n<li>Others\u00a0<strong>depend on insulin<\/strong>\u00a0for glucose entry.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Clinical Implications of Diabetes Mellitus<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>High blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0damages blood vessels, promoting\u00a0<strong>atherosclerosis<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Blood glucose range:<\/strong>\u00a0<strong>70-110 mg\/dL<\/strong>\u00a0for healthy regulation.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Monitoring<\/strong>\u00a0essential, especially during exercise.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Exercise and Blood Glucose Control<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Exercise improves <strong>glucose regulation<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Specifically, exercise <strong>increases glucose uptake<\/strong> in skeletal muscles with\u00a0<strong>less insulin<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li>Helps\u00a0<strong>prevent hyperglycemia<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>vascular damage<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Risks of Exercise<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Hypoglycemia<\/strong>\u00a0if blood glucose drops too low during activity.<\/li>\n<li>Therefore,<strong> monitoring<\/strong>\u00a0blood glucose levels is important during exercise.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Symptoms of hypoglycemia:<\/strong>\u00a0Dizziness, weakness, confusion, and in severe cases,\u00a0<strong>coma<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Pathophysiological Effects of Uncontrolled Diabetes<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Elevated blood glucose damages blood vessels (<strong>macrovascular<\/strong>\u00a0and\u00a0<strong>microvascular<\/strong>\u00a0disease).<\/li>\n<li>Increased risk of\u00a0<strong>cardiovascular disease, retinal damage, stroke<\/strong>, and\u00a0<strong>kidney failure<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h1><strong>Summary<\/strong><\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Maintaining blood glucose<\/strong>\u00a0within normal limits is crucial.<\/li>\n<li>Both\u00a0<strong>insulin deficiency<\/strong> (Type 1 Diabetes) and <strong>receptor resistance<\/strong> (Type 2 Diabetes) disrupt homeostasis.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lifestyle modifications<\/strong>\u00a0like exercise and dietary management are key to control.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Monitoring blood glucose levels<\/strong>\u00a0regularly helps prevent complications.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":1370,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["zoe-soon"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[60],"license":[57],"class_list":["post-5112","chapter","type-chapter","status-web-only","hentry","contributor-zoe-soon","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":63,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5112","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1370"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5112\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5248,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5112\/revisions\/5248"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/63"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/5112\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5112"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=5112"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=5112"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/pathophysiology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=5112"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}