17 Feminist Psychology: Struggles and Contributions of Women

Chapter Citation

Esfahani, S., McKnight, N., Kim, A. & Jones, A. (2025) Feminist psychology: Struggles and contributions of women In Psychological Roots. BCcampus Press. Retrieved from https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/psychologicalroots/chapter/feminist-psychology-struggles-and-contributions-of-women/

Learning Objectives:

1. Identify how early psychological theories and institutions excluded women of colour and how this impacted the development of the discipline. Early psychological theories were largely developed within a Western, white, male-dominated academic framework that systematically excluded women, especially women of colour, from both education and professional participation. The result was a limited, often distorted view of human behaviour that reflected only a narrow segment of the population. This exclusion not only created deep gaps in psychological theory, but also sustained structures of oppression under the guise of objective science.

2. Describe the contributions of pioneering women of colour in psychology and explain how their research challenged dominant paradigms. Women of color such as Mamie Phipps Clark, Inez Beverly Prosser, and Ruth Winifred Howard made groundbreaking contributions to psychology by centering race, education, identity and development in their research. Their work challenged dominant paradigms that overlooked non-white experiences. For example, Inez Beverly Prosser’s work compared Black children in segregated and integrated schools, revealing the psychological harms of racial discrimination. This research provided an alternative to mainstream psychology by addressing systemic injustice and reinforcing intersectional approaches.

3. Analyze how scientific racism and theories like eugenics shaped mainstream psychological thought and justified systemic discrimination Systemic racism and eugenic ideologies deeply influences early psychological thought, as seen in the work of figures like G. Stanley Hall. Hall portrayed non-white races as childlike and intellectually inferior, reinforcing white supremacist narratives within psychology. These ideas justified policies of exclusion and segregation. Feminist psychologists and scholars of colour later these pseudoscientific beliefs for what they were: tools of oppression masked as objective truth. Their critiques helped shift psychology toward a more inclusive, ethical and evidence-based field.

Introduction

Feminist psychology by definition, originated as a political movement aimed at fostering social change and amplifying women’s voices (Sheese, 2021). Early psychological theories were shaped by a patriarchal society that often excluded women from higher education and the discipline itself. Dominant psychological theories were largely based on a narrow, western-focused perspective, which overlooked the viewpoints and ideas of women, especially women of colour. During the 21st century, debates surrounding feminist psychology’s success in becoming mainstream have intensified, with many questioning its compatibility with traditional western psychology (Sheese, 2021). Feminists scholars have worked hard to bring up critiques about mainstream psychology, by challenging its male-centric perspectives, and advocating for a more inclusive understanding of gender, race, and colonialism. Critics such as Jeanne Marecek, have argued that the relationship between feminism and psychology may not be sustainable, pointing out the frustrations of feminist scholars who feel that the field has not lived up to its promise of transformation. Mainstream psychology, for example, continues to prioritize quantitative methods and “objective” data, often dismissing the value of qualitative and experiential approaches that feminist psychologists have introduced. Diagnostic frameworks such as the DSM have historically pathologized women’s experiences (Sheese, 2021). The aim of this paper is to highlight the experiences and the oppression that women have historically faced and continue to face within the male-dominated field of psychology, and to shed light on female psychologists whose discoveries have gone unnoticed in the past. The exclusion of women from attending universities historically led to the absence of diverse perspectives, the underrepresentation of women in scientific research (particularly studies on women’s biology), and the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes by misogynist psychologists, who, for example, believed that the male skull correlated with higher intelligence simply because it is larger than the female skull (Rodkey, 2011).

Background

Feminist psychology originated as a movement aimed at amplifying the voices of women who had been excluded from the field of psychology, which had been dominated by Western-traditional perspectives. Psychology, like many other disciplines, was shaped by male-centered ideas while women were barred from attending school (Sheese, 2021). This exclusion led to a deficiency in knowledge regarding the female biology and psyche. Although women were barred from attending universities, that did not stop them from seeking knowledge and obtaining academic degrees through alternative paths. Pioneers such as Margaret Floy Washburn, the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in 1894, overcame the sexist barriers imposed by the system and achieved a great victory in a field that was dominated by men (Fragazy, 2021). Other early feminist figures, like Karen Horney and Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley, also fought these barriers by critiquing the androcentric assumptions of Freudian theory, especially the concepts of “penis envy.” (Miletic et al., 2002; Morse, 2002).

Despite these groundbreaking efforts of women, the exclusion of women of colour from psychological research persisted for much of the 20th century. The absence of their perspectives resulted in significant gaps in understanding human psychology in terms of race and intersectionality. Psychologists like Mamie Phipps Clark and Inez Beverly Prosser, who focussed on race and education, helped bring light onto harmful effects of segregation and racial discrimination (Benjamin, 2008; Wesling, 1974). Their work, along with that of other women of colour, has been vital in reshaping psychology towards better representation of diverse human experiences.

Feminist Psychology

Feminist psychology is a critical approach within the field that centers the historically overlooked experiences, voices and contributions on women. It emerged as a response to the exclusion of women as both researchers and as research subjects in early psychological science. Traditional psychological theories were largely developed by and based upon the experiences of men, resulting in a limited and often biased understanding of human behaviour. Feminist psychology not only seeks to correct these gaps by advocating for more inclusive research practices by challenging the assumptions that have been portrayed as intellectually inferior, but to also work towards equity in both theory and practice. The necessity for feminist psychology begins with the complete exclusion of women in early psychology. Because of this, much of our psychological theories are missing the valuable perspectives of women. Women are not only underrepresented as practitioners in the field of psychology, but as subjects as well. It is well known that women are less researched than men in the medical field, but there is much to be explored about gender differences in the effects of psychological and psychiatric disorders and treatments. Feminist psychology seeks to close the gap between men and women as research subjects and to obtain more empirical data on women’s psychological experiences. The exclusion of women as psychological researchers may have been a major contributor to the exclusion of women as subjects. According to the National Institute of Health, it was not required by law in the United States for researchers to include women and minorities in trials until the NIH Revitalization Act: Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research was passed by congress in 1993. Much of the historical exclusion of women in medical and psychological research was due to concern for fertility. While this is a valid concern, it is a blatant double standard since the fertility concern did not cause any hesitation for including male subjects. The dominant cultural zeitgeist continues to be one of misogyny contributed to the exclusion of women as research participants and practitioners in psychological research. Weisstein is often credited for dismantling some of the prevailing ideas about women in psychology being viewed as childlike with few motivations outside of becoming mothers and wives. Evolutionary psychology and Darwinian concepts of men having “intellectual superiority” over women was particularly influential and harmful to the perceived intellect of women in society (Shields and Bhatia 2009). Darwin states that the reason for this was due to increased pressures from natural selection being placed on men. Although there was little evidence for Darwin’s claims at the time and they would later be debunked within the field; these ideas about women’s inferiority created biological “evidence” to perpetuate misogynistic ideas. The ideas of women being intellectually inferior to men were persistent barriers to women entering the field of psychology, which was challenged by early feminism and the undeniable brilliance of the early women in the field.

Educational Barriers

In the early development of psychology as a formal discipline, systemic barriers excluded women from academic institutions, barring them from enrolling in universities or earning degrees. As a result, the only avenue available for women to gain psychological education was through private tutoring, typically under the guidance of male psychologists. This path was both limited and informal, reinforcing the gendered hierarchy within the field. For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn, who became the first woman to earn a doctoral degree in psychology in 1894, demonstrates both the persistence of women and the structural challenges they faced (Fragaszy, 2021). Her achievement, while groundbreaking, highlights how exceptional a woman’s academic success had to be in a field that systematically denied them access. A demonstration of the discriminatory practices against women in the field of Psychology is the ban against women attending university. One of the most well-known cases of this discrimination is the University Education of Mary Whiton Calkins. After earning her undergraduate degree in classics and philosophy at Smith College in 1882, Whiton-Calkins completed a PhD in Psychology at Harvard. Despite completing this program and receiving praise from Hugo Munsterberg for her academic achievements, Whiton-Calkins was denied her degree by Harvard University. On the grounds that the institution did not accept women at her time of study, Harvard continued to deny Whiton-Calkins her degree posthumously (APA, 2011). Although Whiton-Calkins faced many barriers while working to achieve an education in Psychology, she made a name for herself in the field regardless. Whiton-Calkins became the first female president of the APA and the 14th president in the history of the organization. Whiton-Calkins would also go on to establish the first Psychology lab at a women’s college in the United States. An example of a significant figure in feminist psychology who challenged the male-dominated foundations of the field is Karen Horney. As one of the first women to enter a German university for medical school in 1906, she defied societal norms and became the first woman to present a paper on feminine psychology at an international conference. Her work directly critiqued the androcentric assumptions of Freudian theory, especially the concepts of “penis envy.” Horney argued that if envy existed, it stemmed not from a literal desire for male autonomy, but from a longing for the societal power and privilege associated with being male (Miletic et al., 2002). Her contributions, including 14 influential papers on feminine psychology written between 1922 and 1937, continue to be recognized for their lasting impact. Another early feminist psychologist who also faced challenges with limited educational opportunities was Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley. Like many women of her time, Woolley entered the field through the mentorship and support of male psychologists, as formal academic pathways were often inaccessible or unwelcoming to women. Despite these barriers, she earned her Ph.D. at the University of Chicago under the supervision of James Rowland Angell and conducted one of the first experimental studies on psychological and intellectual differences between men and women (Morse, 2002). Her 1903 dissertation tested over 25 cognitive, sensory, and motor abilities in men and women, and she found more similarities than differences, directly challenging the dominant assumptions of female intellectual inferiority. She also critiqued the idea of greater male variability, which was a common justification at the time for excluding women from higher education and professional careers, arguing that such claims were based more on cultural biases than scientific evidence. Woolley’s conclusions were revolutionary, as they contradicted the belief in biological determinism and emphasized the influence of social and environmental factors on psychological development. By exposing the flawed methodologies and ingrained false beliefs behind sex-difference research, Woolley laid the groundwork for later feminist psychologists to push back against sexist and misogynistic theories with empirically grounded critiques.

These early pioneers – Washburn, Horney and Woolley – not only overcame significant educational barriers, but also laid the intellectual and scientific foundations for feminist psychology, proving that despite systemic exclusion, women still found ways to shape and challenge the discipline from its earliest stages.

Exclusion of Women of Colour

The omission of women of colour from early psychology theory and study has resulted in an enormous void in what is understood about human behaviour, particularly from non-traditional perspectives. For centuries, dominant psychological theories were founded upon a limited Western-focused worldview that virtually excluded or relegated to the periphery input from women of colour. This not only hindered the building of a more progressive psychological picture but also seemed to support already well-established structures of racism and sexism in the discipline. Thus, much helpful information and theory, which could have otherwise enriched and diversified it as it developed, was lost.
A fine example of this is Frances Cress Welsing, an African-American psychiatrist whose own scholarship focused almost entirely on the psychology of race. Her “Cress Theory” claimed that a white supremacist system—the very opposite of race per se—was the psychological link for affected persons, and more especially for the African-American community. Welsing’s oeuvre shed light on how institutionalized racism affects both the individual and collective psyche. Another key figure is Mamie Phipps Clark, an African-American psychologist who, with her husband, Kenneth Clark, conducted the infamous “Doll Test”(Wesling 1974). This experiment revealed the detrimental effects of segregation on self-esteem among children of colour. Their pioneering efforts brought about the final pronouncement in the Brown v. Board of Education case, which eventually led to the desegregation of public schools in America. Helena Keer is often a forgotten yet influential figure. She was a Caribbean-born feminist psychology goddess who laid the groundwork for what research reveals today about the intersection of race, gender, and psychological development, especially in marginalized populations. Many of the early women in psychology and feminist psychologists were from the United States, and it is no coincidence that there was nearly a 40 year gap between the first white woman and the first black woman to earn a doctorate in psychology. Texas-born Inez Beverly Prosser; the first black woman to earn a doctorate in psychology, pursued her studies when Jim Crow laws were still in effect in the southern states (Urofski, 2004). Inez Beverly Prosser conducted her dissertation on the relationship between self-esteem and personality traits in African-American middle school students, comparing those who attended segregated schools to those in integrated schools in Cincinnati. Her study concluded that black children in segregated schools with black classmates and black teachers, had better overall outcomes compared to the children in integrated schools. Students in integrated schools struggled socially and felt less secure in their relationships and their academic setting (Benjamin, 2008). The contributions of women of colour psychologists are crucial, as they conduct research like this, which sheds light on the experiences of marginalized communitites. Ruth Winifred Howard earned a doctorate of Psychology from Minnesota University in 1934. Prior to pursuing her higher education in psychology, Howard was in the field of social work (APA, 2010). Howard became one of the first African American women to obtain a doctorate degree in psychology, sometimes being referred to as the first (although Inez Beverly Prosser is documented to have received the degree about a year prior to Howard). Howard did most of her work in the field of childhood and developmental psychology, with her doctoral research focusing on the development of 229 groups of triplets from infancy into late-adulthood (APA, 2013). Howard dedicated much of her career to supporting vulnerable girls as well as uplifting women in their careers of psychology and other fields, becoming a founding member of the Association of College Women. Howard worked at a state school for ‘delinquent girls’ and the Young Women’s Christian Association to help vulnerable women and girls (APA, 2010). Howard’s presence in the field of psychology alone was enough to inspire many women, but she still went out of her way to help women through her practice. Psychology has a long history of weaponizing pseudo-scientific theories of white supremacy (Bird, et al., 2023). G. Stanley Hall, the first president of the APA created influence within the field of psychology towards racist views and more specifically, what would become the eugenics movement (Budwig, et al., 2023). Hall’s writings about “non white” races being childlike, underdeveloped, and in a state of “adolescence” even into adulthood was particularly harmful (Williams, 2020). Hall has been listed as a leader of multiple eugenics organizations, publishing many works under themes of white supremacy (Yakushko, 2019). These ideas fabricated by scientific racism would stretch from claims of race being indicative of brain size to skin colour influencing IQ (Bird, et al., 2023). This became a dangerous form of discrimination, as it gave people “biological evidence” for their white supremacist beliefs. Many of the ideas surrounding racial “intellectual inferiority” can be attributed to broad systemic oppression and unequal opportunities for education. The rising wind of racism and sexism in the Western culture during the early formation of psychology was responsible for silencing these women’s voices and their theories. Such work would have been relegated or ignored because of race and gender; both were considered inconsequential to the supposed higher, white-male authority in the field. This was a vicious circle wherein the perspectives of women of colour were either ignored or misrepresented in psychological theory and research.

Conclusion

Feminist psychology was born out of an awareness of this exclusion, acting as a counterpoint. The aim was to fill the gaps through the inclusion of women’s perspectives, primarily those of marginalized women, while constantly confronting deeply embedded patriarchal and racial biases in mainstream psychology. This movement thus articulated the need to consider gender, race, and intersectional factors in understanding anything to do with human beings and their behaviour. Feminist psychology as a subfield sought to provide a more inclusive and multidimensional framework by integrating the contributions of women, and especially women of colour to represent the diversity of human experiences. Excluding women in early psychology resulted in glaring gaps in psychological theories and research. Feminist psychology has been crucial in highlighting the voices and perspectives of women, especially women of colour, through the concepts that it has put forward to fill these gaps and confront long enforced patriarchal biases. Therefore, more recognition and inclusion in psychology will broaden the understanding of psychology as a discipline representing diverse human experiences and as a fairground for all. Future studies should explore how incorporating these diverse perspectives can transform both research methodologies and clinical practices. To ethically, morally, and generally be more inclusive presently, and in perpetuity.

Key Terms & Definitions

1. Androcentrism: The practice of centering male experiences, perspectives, and values as the norm or default, often leading to the marginalization/exclusion of female experiences in research, theory, and practice.
2. Biological Determinism: The belief that biological factors such as genetics or sex differences determine human behaviour, intelligence, and social roles, often used historically to justify gender inequality.
3. Eugenics: The manipulation of reproductive health for the purpose of ensuring certain genetic traits are passed on. Eugenics is an extremely discriminative and problematic practice with ties to early psychology through G Stanley Hall and many other contributors.
4. Evolutionary Psychology: The study of human psychological traits and behaviour through a lens that investigates their significance for human survival and adaptability.
5. Intersectionality: How different systems of oppression overlap, especially in the experiences of marginalized individuals. In feminist psychology, it highlights how women of color face unique challenges not fully captured by frameworks focusing solely on gender.
6. Epistemic Exclusion: The marginalization/devaluation of certain groups’ knowledge or ways of knowing within academic or institutional spaces. It refers to how the experiences and contributions of women of color are often overlooked within mainstream psychological research.
7. Marginalization: The process by which individuals or groups are pushed to the edges of society, denying them access to power, representation and resources.
8. Intellectual inferiority: Biased and unfounded belief that certain groups are naturally less intelligent than others. In the history of psychology, this concept was often used to justify the exclusion of women, especially women of colour, from academic and professional spaces.

Discussion Questions
1. How did early women psychologists like Washburn, Horney, and Woolley challenge the male-dominated foundations of psychology?
Answer: Early women psychologists challenged the male-dominated foundations of psychology in both practical and intellectual ways. Despite being excluded from formal academic institutions, they found alternative routes to education, such as private tutoring and mentorship, and persisted in a field that actively marginalized them. Washburn broke barriers by becoming the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, proving women’s capability in academic research. Horney critiqued androcentric theories in psychoanalysis, especially Freud’s concept of “penis envy,” reframing it as a desire for the power men held in society rather than a literal envy for male anatomy. Woolley used empirical research to counter the belief in biological determinism, showing that intellectual differences between men and women were not as fixed or biologically based as previously thought. These early pioneers not only overcame significant educational barriers, but also laid the intellectual and scientific foundations for feminist psychology, proving that despite systemic, women still found ways to shape/challenge the discipline from its earliest stages.
2. How did evolutionary psychology impact society’s view of women’s intelligence?
Answer: Evolutionary psychology upheld the idea of women being intellectually inferior to men. A specific example of this is Charles Darwin’s claims of women’s intellectual inferiority to men, providing a “scientific” argument for misogynistic societal structures and values. Although these claims were made with a lack of evidence to support them and would later be debunked, the damage had been done in terms of evolutionary psychology’s role in the field’s discrimination against women.
3. How has the concept of intersectionality challenged traditional feminist psychological frameworks, and why is it important for understanding the experiences of women of colour?
Answer: Traditional feminist psychology often focused on the experiences of white, middle-class women, overlooking how race, culture and socio-economic status shape psychological experiences. Intersectionality pushes the field to adopt a more inclusive approach, ensuring that research and theory reflect the realities of all women, especially those at the margins.
4. What barriers did early women of colour face in entering the field of psychology, and how did their work resist/redefine dominant narratives?
Answer: Early women of colour faced significant barriers in entering the field of psychology, including racial segregation, exclusion from academic institutions and systemic biases that dismissed their intellectual capabilities. Their work directly challenged dominant white, male-centered psychological narratives by centering race, identity and lived experience, laying the foundation for more inclusive and intersectional approaches.

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