5 From Biology to Behaviour: How Evolution Influenced Functionalism

Chapter Citation

Ahmed, H., Hosseini, A., Alvarado, D. & Chahestani, F. (2025) From biology to behaviour: How evolution influenced functionalism In Psychological Roots. BCcampus Press. Retrieved from https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/psychologicalroots/chapter/from-biology-to-behaviour-how-evolution-influenced-functionalism/

Learning Objectives:

1. Explain how early evolutionary theories influenced the rise of functionalism

2. Describe the background of evolutionary theory and the development of functionalism

3. Identify and evaluate the contributions of William James, Herbert Spencer, G. Stanley Hall, Helen Thompson Woolley, and Leta Hollingworth in applying and challenging functionalist ideas

Introduction

During early development of psychology, the field started to move away from focusing on what the mind is to exploring what the mind does. This change led to the development of functionalism, an approach that explained how the mind works to help individuals function effectively in their surroundings. Functionalists such as William James and John Dewey played a key role in changing the focus of psychology away from structuralism. William James developed his argument through teaching and writing, arguing that mental processes should be studied based on how they help people solve problems and function in daily life (Nolen, 2025). Similarly, John Dewey focused on how learning happens through experience and interaction with the environment through his research in education (Nolen, 2025). Both thinkers emphasized consciousness as an active, ongoing process rather than a set mental structure (Nolen, 2025). Their work helped connect evolutionary theory to functionalism by showing that behaviour and thought develop in response to their usefulness for adaptation. At the same time, Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution was becoming increasingly influential, not just in biology but also in how people understood human thought and behaviour. His idea of natural selection suggested that both physical and behavioural traits could evolve to help individuals survive in their environment. Psychologists began to view behaviour as serving an adaptive function, determined by the need for individuals to survive under selective environmental pressures. This perspective suggested that certain patterns of thought and behaviour evolved specifically because they increased the chances of survival in particular environments. Therefore, understanding behaviour as a form of adaptation led psychology to focus more on how people adjust to their environment and what influences their actions. This connection between evolution and function became a significant shift in the field. As a consequence, evolutionary principles influenced functionalism, leading psychology to explore how the human mind and behaviour evolved alongside social and environmental demands. This essay will explore how this idea developed through the work of early psychologists and how their contributions remain relevant today.

Background

Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection, introduced in his book titled, On the Origin of Species (1859), demonstrated that changes in the environment can create adaptability within our species, and traits that help in survival are more likely to be passed down through generational evolution. Darwin emphasized that natural selection operates not only on an external level, but also on an internal level as well, such as our cognitive and emotional responses and abilities, which influence how we interact within our environment. Over time, these traits would evolve to enhance survival and reproduction. Darwin’s theory helped influence the groundwork for evolutionary psychology, providing a framework in which we explore how our behaviours and mental processes have developed in response to the challenges of our environments (Darwin. 1859). Functionalism emerged in the late 19th century as a school of thought in American psychology that highlighted the adaptive purposes of mental and behavioural processes (Nolen, 2025). Developed in response to structuralism, which focused on breaking down mental processes into fundamental components, functionalists such as William James and John Dewey shifted the focus toward understanding how consciousness functions to help individuals adapt to their environments (Nolen, 2025). As opposed to isolating mental elements, functionalism explored how exactly thoughts and behaviours operate in an individual’s day-to-day life, especially regarding survival and practical application.

William James Pragmatism and Evolution

William James was a key figure to the field of Psychology. William James applied evolutionary principles to his pragmatic philosophy. Pragmatism argues against the notion that truth is absolute. Instead, it suggested that truth is shaped by its practical outcomes. He proposed that the value of a belief is in its ability to help individuals adapt to their environment and solve real-world problems and to create solutions. He was influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Darwin argued that traits that are essential for human survival are passed on through generations (Desmond, 2025). James used Darwin’s theory of natural selection to discuss that ideas and biological traits are essentially the same because in the ways they evolve and adapt based on their practical efficacy and helpfulness in addressing the challenges individuals face in their environment. Pawelski (2007), explained how Darwin argued that evolutionary change is not contrived only by environmental adaptations but also by mutations that happen externally from an environment. James in similar fashion also viewed ideas as developing from internal factors and not always motivated by the environment. However, James believed that the adaptations and evolution of ideas and beliefs are based on how well it helps an individual in their environment. James’s concept and philosophy challenged traditional views of truth, which often see it as absolute and fixed. He instead proposed that the idea of the “truth” is not inherent or unchanging and that it is established by its applied value and the results it provides, an idea is “true” if it helps individuals navigate their surroundings and improve their chances of success. (Nungesser, 2017). According to James, individuals actively engage with the world around them, constantly shaping their own understanding and experiences based on their values and their goals (Pawelski, 2007). An example of William James work in terms of applying the theory of evolutionary principles is his James-Lange theory of emotion. According to this theory, our emotional responses are not immediate but occur after a physiological response to an environment. For instance, in a stressful situation, we first experience physiological change and due to those responses, such as having an increased heart rate and starting to sweat, and it is then that we can assign emotions, like fear, to these physical responses. (Petri et al, 2025). Descartes’ explored emotions, which he called “passions,” throughout his early years and worked on it till his final book, called Passions of the Soul (1649). Like William James, Descartes believed that emotions arise from bodily processes. Though he differed from James with his approach. Descartes illustrated the differences between what he stated as “body-caused” emotions, which are in accordance with changes in our physiological states and intellectual emotions, for example, the joy we may feel during a play. Descartes focused mainly on the passions, which he viewed as arising from the body’s physiological processes (Hatfield, 2008). Descartes suggested that passions and emotions were influenced by the body’s physiological states. He proposed that emotions arise from the movement he referred to as “animal spirits” which occurred through the nervous system. For example, when in a situation in which we encounter a bear our heart rate increases, and we feel our fight or flight response, and this occurs before we feel the emotion of fear (Hatfield, 2008).This “body-first” theory of emotions is similar to that of William James’ James-Lange theory. Descartes and James argued that we experience our physiological state before our emotional states (Hatfield, 2008). The James-Lange theory emphasizes how evolutionary principles shape emotional responses as adaptive mechanisms designed to help individuals react to environmental threats. In this way, emotions, like ideas, are “true” when they serve a practical function helping individuals to survive as well as adapt. In conclusion, William James helped us understand how mental processes are adaptive tools that develop in response to environmental and societal stresses by applying evolutionary principles to psychology.

Herbert Spencer and Functionalism

Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903) was a crucial figure in linking evolutionary theory with the development of early psychology, especially regarding functionalism. Spencer defined evolution as a “change from incoherent homogeneity to a coherent heterogeneity” (Spencer, 1862, as cited in Weinstein, 2024, para. 4), emphasizing that mental processes developed to help organisms adapt to ever-changing environments. This strongly agrees with the focus of functionalism: understanding the purpose of consciousness and behaviour in supporting adaptation and survival (Weinstein, 2024). Spencer’s Principles of Psychology (1855) suggested that behaviours and ways of thinking develop through life experiences and can be passed down to future generations (Weinstein, 2024). This idea was based on Lamarckian principles, a theory proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and refers to the idea that traits acquired throughout an organism’s lifetime, through use or habit, can be passed down to future generations. Spencer theorized that the frequent use of particular traits would lead to reinforcement and transmission across generations (Hussain & Mustari, 2012). While Spencer’s belief in inherited behavioural traits has been discredited, it helped lay the land of viewing the mind and behaviour as adaptive responses to the environment, a central idea in functionalist psychology (Weinstein, 2024).

Spencer approached mental and moral development as part of a more extensive evolutionary and social process, as opposed to studying them independently, like many others who focused narrowly on individual traits (Weinstein, 2024). He viewed society as an evolving organism, growing in complexity through increasing interdependence and specialization of its members (Hossain & Mustari, 2012; Weinstein, 2024). This perspective reinforced the idea that psychological traits such as cooperation, empathy, and problem-solving emerged because they enhanced group survival (Hossain & Mustari, 2012). Spencer’s belief that behaviour must be understood in context relative to its function within a social/environmental system directly affected the shift in psychology toward studying how behaviour serves practical and adaptive purposes (Weinstein, 2024). As Acton (2025) explains, Spencer’s contributions laid the foundation for understanding mental processes not as fixed/innate but as flexible traits shaped by experience and the environment to serve functional roles. The utilitarian views of Spencer further supported the functionalist emphasis on purpose and outcome. He argued that human actions, including psychological ones, are driven by their consequence, especially in promoting general well-being and survival (Weinstein, 2024). His belief in equal freedom among people highlighted the adaptive value of cooperation and moral development within a society (Weinstein, 2024). These ideas of his helped shape a framework where behaviour was not only biologically influenced but also socially refined, which further contributes to group stability and individual growth (Weinstein, 2024). He also believed that moral sentiments, like empathy and fairness, evolved because they promoted social harmony, supporting group survival (Hossain & Mustari, 2012). Through repeated social experiences, individuals develop positive associations with prosocial behaviours, reinforcing them over time (Weinstein, 2024). He further argued that repeated social behaviours could become ingrained and eventually passed down through generations as natural moral instincts (Hossain & Mustari, 2012). Leslie (2006) also pointed out that Spencer’s work aided in carving out the way for both behaviourism and functionalism through arguing that behaviour should be understood in terms of its purpose.

Overall, his ideas helped position psychology toward seeing behaviour as something that is shaped by both evolution and the social environment. Hall’s Development and Religious Psychology To further understand how evolutionary principles influenced functionalism and psychology as a field, we can analyse Stanley Hall’s interpretation and application of them as the foundation for his developmental and religious psychology. In Hall’s developmental psychology, he theorized that human behaviour and mental growth reenactment of the evolutionary stages of our ancestors, which utilized Ernst Haeckel’s recapitulation theory (Green, 2015). In a way, when a child learns to run or write words, they are reenacting our ancestor’s hunting rituals and the first hieroglyphics, creating a connection between past and present behaviour. Though Haeckel’s recapitulation theory focuses on the development of the embryo mimicking evolutionary stages, Hall used his idea and approach about evolutionary principles and development to propose that the same reasoning can be applied to human beings, specifically children and adolescents. Through this ideology of evolution and development, Hall focused on adolescence as a critical period of evolution for human beings due to the various mental and physical changes that occur. Adolescence provides key developmental growth that guarantees the progress of the humans as a whole, hence Hall depicts the important social environment teenagers must maintain. Men need to be prepared during this period to sustain themselves and others, while women must be prepared for motherhood for the sustainment of the human race. Together with Haeckel, Hall’s developmental psychology and recapitulation theory depict that evolutionary stages persist and contribute to the growth of humans in many aspects of their being, from before and after birth. Despite the controversial use of Hall ideology during his time periods, he successfully demonstrated how evolutionary principles influenced the ideal behind functionalism. Through Hall’s implementation of evolutionary principles in developmental psychology, he portrays the purpose of behaviour and mental process during these stages of growth are for the adaptation of humans and guarente the preservation of the species. Although not as definitive, Hall’s perspective and basis for religious psychology does take influence from evolutionary principles as he states that certain religious practices provide aid for human development. An example of this religious conversation, which he believed to be natural and necessary for the developmental process of humans, specifically adolescents (Henley, 2019). Despite challenging social norms about religion of the time, Hall explored how the practical use of such religious rituals allow humans to further develop their cognitive adaptability. The mentality and behaviour achieved through practices like religious conversation makes humans socially aware of others, which leads to preservative behaviour that guarantees the survival of the species. Hall’s religious psychology demonstrates how functionalism was influenced by evolutionary principles by focusing on how the human mind and behaviour during the developmental process embody said principles. Social Adaptation and Gender Differences In the early development of psychology, particularly under the influence of evolutionary theory and functionalism, many psychologists, built on Darwin’s theory and Herbert Spencer’s social evolutionism, allowed their biases to shape their beliefs by believing that gender differences were biologically predetermined and evolved through natural selection. These assumptions were used to explain why women were considered more emotional, less rational, and better suited for domestic roles. Thinkers such as Francis Galton and Havelock Ellis supported the idea that men had greater variability in intelligence, which they believed gave men an evolutionary advantage in fields such as science, leadership, and academia (Shields, 1975). Similarly, William McDougall claimed that women were biologically driven by maternal instincts, which made them more nurturing and emotionally sensitive (Shields, 1975). These beliefs were considered as scientific. As they were largely influenced by social expectations of the time. Early functionalist thinkers often accepted these views because they aligned with their focus on the purpose of behaviour in adapting to society. As a result, psychological theories during this period tended to reinforce traditional gender roles instead of questioning them. In contrast, psychologists such as Helen Thompson Woolley and Leta Hollingworth challenged these ideas by conducting empirical research. Woolley was one of the first to carry out controlled studies comparing the mental abilities of men and women and she found that most differences were either minimal and in some areas such as memory and perception, women demonstrated stronger performance (Shields, 1975). She argued that any observed differences were more likely caused by differences in social and educational opportunities rather than biological limitations (Shields, 1975). Hollingworth continued this work by challenging the variability hypothesis, which claimed men showed greater differences in intelligence than women (Shields, 1975). She argued that this idea was based on biased data, such as men being more often placed in higher positions or listed as “eminent” simply because they had more access to public roles (Shields, 1975). She pointed out that women’s social roles limited their chances to be recognized, not their abilities (Shields, 1975). Her work showed that gender differences more likely came from social restrictions that women experienced in society than biology. As a result, her view supports the idea that behaviour adapts to the environment, not determined traits.

Conclusion

Fundamentally, evolutionary principles played an important role in shaping functionalism by emphasizing adapting and shifting nature of human mind and behaviour. It becomes clear how behaviour adapts according to the influence of environmental and social factors through the functionalist perspectives provided by these important figures in psychology. William James applied these principles through pragmatism, arguing that truth and beliefs must be judged by their practical outcomes and his James-Lange theory of emotion further reinforced the idea that emotions evolved as adaptive responses to environmental stimuli. Similarly, Stanley Hall incorporated evolutionary ideology into developmental psychology, proposing that human growth recapitulates ancestral evolutionary stages, and he even explored religious practices as tools for social and cognitive adaptation. Spencer’s contributions highlight the functionalist idea that behaviour is shaped by experience and environment rather than being fixed or innate. Despite demonstrating how these principles influenced functionalism, we can not ignore how these discoveries were misapplied to reinforce biased views as they align with belief towards behaviour and traditional social views. However, researchers like Helen Thompson Woolley and Leta Hollingworth dispersed these views by demonstrating further that behaviour and cognition evolve and adapt through environmental and social influence, which aligned with the functionalist perspective. Future research can explore the ongoing impact of evolution in modern society by investigating how current society is shaped by the concepts presented by functionalists like Darwin, James or Herbert. Furthermore we can observe how these concepts currently exist in our society and if they still influence our behaviour.

Study Guide Resources:

1. How does William James’ view on truth and its practical use differ from that of its traditional philosophical views?
answer: William James views truth as not absolute. This differs from traditional views see it as fixed. James views truth by its practical usefulness and its ability to help individuals with practical outcomes. James believed that ideas and beliefs are true if they help individuals survive and adapt in their environments (Nungesser, 2017).

2. How did Spencer’s view of society as an “evolving organism” influence psychology’s understanding of behaviour?
answer: Spencer’s view of society as an “evolving organism” influenced psychology by shifting focus toward understanding behaviour as adaptive and shaped by its environment. He believed that as societies become more complex through interdependence and specialization, individual behaviours like cooperation and problem-solving emerged because they supported group survival (Hossain & Mustari, 2012; Weinstein, 2024). This idea encouraged psychologists to study behaviour not as fixed or isolated traits but as its practical function within a social or environmental context — a core idea in functionalist psychology (Acton, 2025).

3. While Hall’s application of evolutionary principles to developmental and religious psychology had its flaws, which of the two areas do you think these principles were more effectively applied to, and how might they have influenced future discoveries and research?
answer. Between the two fields of psychology, Hall applied evolutionary principles more effectively to developmental psychology because Hall’s general ideas about the topic collaborated and proved what many discovered to be true about the many aspects of development in human beings, specially in how they adapt and change to guarantee the growth. It influences future research and discovery by laying the initial foundation for research to follow and further investigate the topic.

4. To what extent were early psychological theories about gender formed by scientific evidence, and how much were they influenced by cultural bias and social beliefs of the time?
answer: Early psychological theories about gender were influenced more by cultural bias and social beliefs than by strong scientific evidence. Many early thinkers supported the view that women were more emotional and less rational, relying on traditional gender assumptions. While other theories used scientific evidence to argue that these differences were biological, which were largely reinforced by social norms of the time. Researchers such as Woolley and Hollingworth challenged these beliefs by doing studies that showed gender differences were also shaped by environment and social conditions, not just biology. Their work helped bring more balanced views to the field.

Key Terms:

1. Pragmatism: Pragmatism is a philosophy that argues against the idea that truth is absolute. William James suggested that truth is instead truth is effective by its practical outcomes. He proposed that the value of a belief is in its ability to help individuals adapt to their environment (Nungesser, 2017).

2. Evolutionary Theory: The Evolutionary theory is based on Darwins ideas. This theory suggests that mental processes and adaptive traits that help humans survive are more likely to be passed down (Darwin, 1859).

3. Lamarckian Principles: A theory proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck suggesting that traits acquired during an organism’s lifetime through use or habit could be passed down to future generations (Hossain & Mustari, 2012).

4. Adaptive Behaviour: Behaviour that develops in response to environmental or social demands, allowing an organism to better survive or function within its environment (Weinstein, 2024).

5. Recapitulation Theory: Proposes that the development of an individual mimics or reenacts the evolutionary stages of its ancestors (Green, 2015).

6. Religious Conversation: Practice similar to developmental process, where individuals can reassess and understand themselves in order to better understand their society and their own belief system (Henley, 2019).

7. Variability Hypothesis: The belief that men show a wider range of intelligence than women, historically used to justify male dominance in intellectual fields (Shields, 1975).

8. Gender Role Reinforcement: The tendency of early theories to support traditional gender roles, until researchers such as Woolley and Hollingworth showed these differences were driven from environment, not biology.

References
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Charles darwin. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin Green, C. D. (2015). Hall’s developmental theory and Haeckel’s recapitulationism. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(6), 656–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1074069

Hatfield, G. (2008, June 5). Apa PsycNet. American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-12726-001 Henley, T. B. (2019). American psychology and functionalism. In Hergenhahn’s An Introduction to the History of Psychology (8th ed., pp. 313-360). Wadsworth Publishing.

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Nolen, J. L. (2025, March 14). Functionalism (psychology). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/functionalism-psychology

Nungesser, F. (2017). The evolution of pragmatism: On the scientific background of the pragmatist conception of history, action, and sociality. European Journal of Sociology /  Archives Européennes de Sociologie / Europäisches Archiv Für Soziologie, 58(2), 327–367. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26573308

Pawelski, J. O. (2007). The dynamic individualism of William James. State University of New York Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.18254698

Petri, H. L., & Cofer, C. N. (2025, February 1). Motivation as arousal. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/motivation/Motivation-as-arousal

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The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica (2025, January 28). G. Stanley Hall. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/G-Stanley-Hall Weinstein, D. (2024). Herbert Spencer. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spencer/