8 Applied Behavioral Analysis: Roots and Applications

Introduction
Early theorizing about autism concluded that the now-known neurological disorder was a severe case of schizophrenia (Evans, 2013). This categorization subjected autistic
children to rigorous diagnostic assessments. Diagnoses of mental defects, which were frequent in severely autistic individuals, required these individuals to be institutionalized by law (Evans, 2014). Theories of applied behavioral analysis (ABA) resulted in a dramatic shift in the assessment of autistic individuals. Moving away from the historic notion of ‘mental deficiencies’ and ‘cures,’ towards effective symptom management, ABA suggests that learning language and emotional skills with autism is achievable, and beneficial. However, research advancements would not be possible if ethical standards surrounding patient care and psychological research did not develop throughout the 1960’s and beyond. In this chapter, we will explore the popular, and overlooked, theories and theorists of past and current approaches to ABA; in addition to amplifying the voices of historically marginalized researchers and research participants. Theorizing of autism began in 1911, when the Swiss physician Paul Eugan Bleuler coined a new definition for symptoms of severe schizophrenia. Bleuler claimed that ‘autism’ was the manifestation of infantile fantasies and hallucinations to avoid unsatisfying realities (Bleuler, 1950). Children diagnosed with this form of schizophrenia were often mute, exhibited frequent echolalia, or lacked communication skills consistent with their age group. This categorization of autism persisted until the 1960’s, with many proposed theories of cause and treatment occurring along the way. One popular theory took hold in the 1950’s during the peak of the behaviorist zeitgeist. Leo Kanner and Bruno Bettelheim, both Austrian psychologists, posited the “refrigerator mother theory;” mothers who were frigid and unemotional were to be blamed for their child’s autism (Bettelheim, 1967). This theory captures the essence of behaviorism in that observable phenomenon, frigid mothers, are responsible for autistic symptomatology. This historical review aims to understand early behaviorist approaches on applied behavioral analysis as a field, and shifts in perspectives surrounding ABA.

Roots of ABA: O. Ivar Lovaas
Commonly accredited as the pioneer of ABA, Norwegian psychologist O. Ivar Lovaas began his trials with autistic children in 1961 at UCLA (Larsson & Wright, 2011). His studies began with institutionalized ‘schizophrenic’ children in which he focused on the acquisition of imitative speech with mute children (Lovaas et al., 1966). Lovaas utilized operant conditioning within these initial trials. Positive reinforcement was conducted through rewarding children for producing sounds within a specific time interval following an adult’s production of sound. Trials advanced through limiting the criteria in which the child was given a reward; initially simply eliciting a sound, to production of the same vowel sounds, to the child’s ability to imitate a word. Lovaas’s research interests expanded past speech imitation with ‘schizophrenic’ children, however. Famously, or infamously according to some, is Allan Grant’s (1965) documentation of Lovaas’s implementation of systematic punishment to reduce self-injurious behavior. Grant’s photo essay titled “Screams, Slaps, and Love,” was published in Life magazine in 1965, and controversially documented the aversive control utilized at UCLA in the form of physical slaps and electric shocks. These trials however involved overwhelmingly more positive reinforcement than aversive control (Larsson & Wright, 2011). Favorite foods and affectionate play were given in return for the children’s willingness to mimic speech or read. Through the staff’s patience and encouragement, desired behaviors were positively reinforced. In true behaviorist fashion, Lovaas states that by “forcing a change in the child’s outward behavior [Lovaas] can affect an inward psychological change” (Grant, 1965, p. 89).
These insightful trials influenced the basis of ABA as we know it today.

Listening to Those Who Do Not Speak: What Do the Participants Have to Say?
Through early studies with autistic individuals, the definition of autism shifted from severe schizophrenia towards its current classification as a neurological and developmental
disorder (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). The reclassification of autism, and later its treatments, allowed more opportunity for inclusion and acceptance of autistic individuals. Early trials with autistic children were conducted with a paternalistic perspective in which the researcher/psychologist/practitioner knows what is objectively best for these children. Societal perspectives surrounding autism in the 1960’s were paternalistic as well, regarding the refrigerator mother theory which blames mothers for their child’s symptomology (Bettelheim, 1967). The focus was on achieving normalcy and decreasing divergent behavior such as echolalia, frequent tantrums, and self-injurious behaviors. A perspective commonly neglected throughout past discussions is that of autistic children themselves. This is especially challenging as many children with autism are mute or lack the ability to communicate feelings in a neurotypical fashion. In the same fashion behavioral analysis is utilized to identify negative behaviors, it can be used to identify behaviors of sadness or joy. Lovaas himself noticed that when the classroom was closed on Saturdays, the children would cry outside begging to be let in (Smith & Eikeseth, 2010). There is a major loss of insight into the participants’ experiences with early approaches to ABA.

Early Studies Paved the Way
The zeitgeist of behaviorism allowed for the observation of behavior to facilitate positive growth and change on individual, social, and familial levels. Lovaas demonstrated enormous success reducing self-injurious behavior and teaching communication skills to autistic children. So much success he drew criticism over the dramatic results he reported (Smith & Eikeseth, 2010). However, the accomplishments achieved in the early studies of ABA awarded autistic children with more opportunity to live a ‘normal’ life. Instead of confining autistic children to an institution, the reduction of symptoms associated with ABA allowed the children to live within their communities (Smith & Eikeseth, 2010). Today, ABA has evolved past the use of aversive control and involuntary institutionalization. Behavioral interventions now occur in more organic settings such as a home or classroom setting. Early studies provided insight into the framework of learning behaviors and contributed to discussion of understanding neurodivergence.

Major Point I: Behaviorist Roots In ABA
Resuming back to behaviorism, a psychological approach that focuses on observable behavior that suggests that behavior can be explained by an environmental stimulus and
learned responses.. The following discussion will investigate B.F Skinner’s initial positive reinforcement trials that served as a model to ABA in educational therapy and treatment for autistic individuals. Therefore, ABA facilitates learning through reinforcement interventions such as stimulus transfer control and positive reinforcement.

Early Behaviorists: Edward Thorndike and John B. Watson
Edward Thorndike was one of the earliest behaviorists to contribute to ABA, as his research provided insight into operant conditioning, which concludes that behavior is influenced by either positive or negative experiences (Papera, 2021). Following Thorndike, Papera (2021) argues that John B. Watson’s contributions to behaviorism helped the
development of ABA and the importance of observable behavior. The environment plays an important role in understanding behavior, as this can influence individuals actions.
Skinner’s Positive Reinforcement Skinner’s approach emphasizes the role of the environment – reinforcement in shaping, as well as controlling behavior. He argues that behavior is determined by its consequences (Main, 2023). Therefore, reinforcement plays an important role in shaping those behaviors. Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning focuses on the stimuli that increase or decrease frequency of behavior. Positive reinforcement is most commonly used within ABA. Positive reinforcement: This involves presenting a stimulus that is desired by an individual after a behavior occurs. After positive reinforcement, it is more likely to increase behavior frequency. For example, positive reinforcement may be used to teach autistic children to communicate. For example, if a child successfully identifies a picture/object pairing they are then rewarded to encourage the behavior, such as
being reinforced by getting a sticker or candy. (Empower Behavioral Health, 2023). The example also emphasizes the positive transfer control refers to using the already learned skill or behavior to assist and learn a similar task. If the therapist changes the image from a teddy bear to another stuffed animal, then the required task must be done in order to get reinforcement.

Stimulus Transfer Control Within ABA
Bohl’s (2008) stimulus transfer control is the process of transferring control of a behavior from one stimulus to another. Bohl’s research involves stimulus transfer control by
using two stimulant techniques, the receptive echoic tact (e.g., asking child ‘what animal can you see in this picture’ along with ‘say cat’ along with reinforcement), and the echoic tact (slowly taking out the verbal cue) for the child to say what is in the picture (e.g., cat). The goal for this study was to help children with ASD to develop their verbal and tactile skill successfully through reinforcement. In conclusion, stimulus transfer control is an important concept that helps understand how behaviors can be impacted by the environment and how this can be purposely changed or modified through classical conditioning.

Major Point II: Marginalized Perspectives and their Contributions to ABA – Roxana
During the 1930s and 1960s, there was significant and widespread sexism, which is also the era in which B.F. Skinner laid the groundwork for behaviour analysis (Rotta et al.,
2021). During this period, women were actively discouraged from engaging in scientific research and experienced severe discrimination if they challenged traditional gender roles (Rotta et al., 2021). Considering this issue, not only were leadership roles dominated by men, but all positions in behaviour analysis were also predominantly held by men (Rotta et al., 2021). Following the Women’s Rights Movement, there was the second wave of feminism commonly referred to as Title IX, which enabled women to access and excel in higher education, despite ongoing obstacles (Rotta et al., 2021). It was pivotal for women pursuing careers as behaviour analysts, as it opened doors and provided opportunities that were previously beyond their reach (Rotta et al., 2021). Yet, sexism was not the sole concern during that era as other marginalized groups faced similar injustices in the workplace, compared to Caucasian individuals (Rotta et al., 2021). In fact, there has been progress in addressing this problem, including the establishment of Black Applied Behaviour Analysts, an organization dedicated to promoting diversity within the field (Rotta et al., 2021). Although progress has been made in addressing and minimizing behaviours related to sexism, racism and other forms of prejudice, they persist today, as marginalized perspectives are often overlooked (Rotta et al., 2021). Therefore, the focus will be on three women who have made significant positive impacts in the field of ABA but are underrepresented. Dr. Doreen Granpeesheh’s Contribution to the Field Dr. Doreen Granpeesheh is an Iranian scholar who has spent over four decades helping individuals with autism to live healthy and productive lives (Autism Care Today, n.d.). While studying to obtain multiple degrees, she also worked with Dr. Ivar Lovaas on an outcome study. It was later published in 1987 and was found to be rather successful as it demonstrated a recovery rate of nearly 50% among the participants (Autism Care Today, n.d.). Dr. Granpeesheh’s notable achievements in the field of ABA include: Dr. Granpeesheh expanded upon Dr. Lovaas’ initial research, and established the Center for Autism and Related Disorders, also referred to as CARD, in 1990 (Autism Care Today, n.d.). The CARD model is a comprehensive and scientific strategy for managing autism (Autism Care Today, n.d.). In the span of 30 years, this doctor’s guidance prompted the CARD model to be one of the world’s most successful ABA-based treatments for people diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (Autism Care Today, n.d.). This doctor then initiated Skills, which is a pioneering online platform aimed at expanding the availability of evidence-based treatment for autism (Autism Care Today, n.d.). The platform offers an expansive selection of services including in-depth evaluations and scheduling options to help frame strategies for challenging behaviours, monitor progress, and evaluate treatment effectiveness to better qualify those in need. (Autism Care Today, n.d.). Dr. Granpeesheh’s accomplishments extend even further, and she is a significant contributor to the field of ABA treatments (Autism Care Today, n.d.). Even in retirement, her dedication carries on as she is determined to improve the effectiveness of these treatments (Autism Care Today, n.d.). She strives to enrich the knowledge of behaviour analysts by integrating additional knowledge on diagnostic criteria, dietary protocols, and biomedical interventions used in autism treatment (Autism Care Today, n.d.). Dr. Marina U. Bers’ Contribution to the Field Dr. Marina Bers is originally from Argentina where she completed her undergraduate degree in Social Communication at Buenos Aires University (Boston College School of Education and Human Development, n.d.). The doctor is now a Professor of Education at the Lynch School of Education and Development at Boston College and also works in the Department of Computer Science and is part of the Schiller Institute for Science and Society (Boston College School of Education and Human Development, n.d.). Moreover, Dr. Bers was a professor in the Eliot Pearson’s Department of Child Study and Human Development at Tufts University in 2001 while also setting up a team called the Developmental Technologies research group and later becoming its director (Boston College School of Education and Human Development, n.d.). Professor Bers’ research focuses on designing and exploring technologies that foster children’s positive development. Over time, she has developed various specialized tools spanning from robots to virtual worlds. She is currently concentrating her research on programming robots with languages to stimulate original forms of thinking and learning in early childhood while promoting social and emotional development (Boston College School of Education and Human Development, n.d.). For instance, she helped create the free ScratchJ programming language and initiated the development of the KIBO robot kit with its purpose being to enable programming through wooden blocks, without the need for keyboards or screens (Boston College School of Education and Human Development, n.d.). According to the Boston College of Education and Human Development, Bers has also published multiple books to share her methods, ideas and approaches with people interested in the same topic. Dr. Beth Sulzer-Azaroff’s Contribution to the Field Dr. Beth Sulzer-Azaroff used to be an elementary school teacher until she grew a fascination with behaviour analysis following the conversations she and her husband, Edward Sulzer, would have about the different things he was learning and how she could apply them to the students in her classroom (Rotta et al., 2021). Therefore, Dr. Sulzer-Azaroff pursued and received a Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Minnesota (Rotta et al., 2021). Her goal was to stimulate behavioural changes in socially important areas such as communication skills, which is when she discovered behavioural analysis (Association for Behavior Analysis International, n.d.). Through these roles, she emphasizes the development of behavioural systems that aim to enhance the quality of educational services provided online and in person while maintaining a healthy job performance (Association for Behavior Analysis International, n.d.). Dr. Sulzer-Azaroff’s generous contributions to the field of ABA helped tear down barriers by creating accessible educational services (Association for Behavior Analysis International, n.d.). Based on the information above, it is clear that women and marginalized individuals now have more of an opportunity to excel in behavioural analysis compared to the field’s origins in the 1960s (Rotta et al., 2021). For example, male behavioural analysts continue to earn more money than their female counterparts and are more active in this field (Rotta et al., 2021). Although there has been much progress, there is still room for improvement. According to Rotta et al. (2021), some potential solutions can include removing obstacles and creating more chances for women and minorities to climb the ladder in the workplace.

Major Point III: Ethics Surrounding Past and Present ABA Approaches – Daniela
While examining ABA’s ethical history, we can attest to the significant evolution, driven by both theoretical advancements and ethical considerations. This section discusses important aspects of ethics within ABA, including adjustment in methods, cultural diversity considerations, and challenges the ethics of behavioral techniques. Adjustment Of The Use of Ethical Methods Behavioral psychologists are required to navigate complex ethical dilemmas in their day-to-day practice; it requires continuous evidence-based toning methods (Schreck et al., 2023). We see a clear area of focus is behavioral skills training (BTS), which provides a structured approach to developing ethical decision-making skills among behavior analysts. BTS incorporates active learning techniques like modeling, role-playing, and feedback to enhance and increase ethical competence and promote ethical behavior in clinical practice. Through this process of engaging in simulated scenarios and receiving feedback from peers and supervisors, psychologists can develop critical thinking skills and learn to apply ethical principles effectively in real-world situations. This training method offers a creative and engaging approach to ethical training, to reinforce learning objectives. Behavioral skills training also uses case studies and ethical vignettes to provide valuable opportunities for behavior analysts to explore the possible dilemmas they might be facing when it comes to decision-making (Schreck et al., 2023). Case studies present analysts with real-life scenarios drawn from clinical practices, which allow for a complex analysis of ethical issues, consider any alternative courses of action, and weigh the potential consequences of their decisions. This engagement of collaborative discussion and debriefings help gain insight from diverse perspectives and develop a deeper understanding of ethical principles in action. This method also incorporates ethical reflection and self-assessment into supervision and development activities to promote even more growth and learning of ethical practices. Through the encouragement of reflection on their ethical reasoning and behavior, they will be able to foster a culture of ethical accountability. This encouragement of the culture of openness and transparency surrounding ethical issues allows for the comfortability of seeking guidance and support when faced with possible issues. By creating this supportive environment where ethical concerns can be openly discussed and addressed from different perspectives, in order to uphold high ethical standards and prioritize the well-being of their clients. This collaborative effort provides the opportunity to develop better ethical guidelines and best practices that reflect the evolving needs and values of the ABA community.

Possible Ignorance in Terms Of Culture and Diversity In Ethics
The ignorance of culture and diversity in ethics has become a multifaceted challenge since ABA requires thorough exploration and nuance of understanding. This proves a need
for a comprehensive approach that encompasses both individual and systemic change. Arango and Lustig (2023) emphasize the critical importance of cultural competence in ABA practice, noticing the need for behavior analysts to recognize and address potential blind spots and biases stemming from cultural ignorance. Cultural diversity among clients demands increased awareness and appreciation of the different perspectives of individual experiences and behaviors. Values, beliefs, and morals are important aspects of culture that behavior analysts must take into account to avoid cultural biases. Cultural competence needs to extend beyond mere awareness, in order to actively tailor interventions to meet the unique needs and preferences of individuals from different backgrounds. This calls for engagement and collaboration between psychologists, clients, and their families. Valuing their culture will provide insights and expertise in developing culturally responsive treatment plans. This integration of cultural humility and sensitivity into their practice helps establish trust and rapport, creating an alliance grounded in mutual respect and understanding. In addition, this practice involves ongoing evolution and adaptation to ensure the proper alignment with clients’ cultural values and goals, thereby promoting inclusivity and equity. Behavior analysts should actively seek out opportunities for cultural enrichment and professional development through engagement with a diverse group of peers and community members. In addition, organizations and educational institutions have a responsibility to provide proper support and resources for the diverse clientele.

Critique of Ethical Behavioural Practices
The critique of ethical behavioral practices serves as a fuel for introspection and dialogue within the field of Applied Behavioural Analysis. This drives analysts to scrutinize traditional ethical frameworks and their applicability across diverse cultural contexts. This examination acknowledges the complexities of ethical standards, which may be very significant across cultures and societies. Recognizing these limitations of universal ethical norms, behavioral analysts are inclined to adopt more inclusive and culturally sensitive approaches to their decision-making. This leads to their questioning of assumptions, biases, and traditional ethical frameworks, in order to remain vigilant to the potential blind spots and oversights of ethical methods. The recognition that cultural diversity profoundly influences ethical perspectives and values is a key aspect of this critique. Analysts have to navigate the complicated roads of cultural norms, societal values, and ethical principles, while also acknowledging that what may be considered ethical in one culture, may be the opposite in another. This ongoing questioning invited behavior analysts to confront their own biases and assumptions and challenged them to expand their perspectives and embrace cultural humility and sensitivity in their day-to-day practice. This critique also shows the dynamic nature of ethics, coming from the shifting societal values and ethical considerations. Psychologists are expected to adapt, refine, and learn ethical standards in light of emerging challenges and cultural shifts to ensure that ABA practices remain ethically sound and culturally sensitive.

Major Point IV: Present Real-Life Applications of ABA – Camelia
Discrete Trial Training (DTT) As mentioned above, one of the oldest yet still a prevalent ABA training method is discrete trial training (DTT). The main goal of this technique is to generalize learnt skills throughout different settings, people, and stimuli (Toby Honsberger, n.d.). It was initially developed by Ivar Lovaas and his colleagues at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) during the 1970s (Lovaas, 1987). They observed that therapeutic methods for autism were mainly based on psychodynamic theories, which suggested that managing psychological concerns could improve autistic behaviors (Lovaas, 1987). However, during the 1960s, empirical studies started doubting the efficiency of these techniques. Throughout this time, there had been a shift from psychodynamic approaches to more empirical based behavioral measures which greatly assisted autistic children in learning and improving behavior (Lovaas, 1987). There had also been a rise in awareness among researchers and physicians regarding the neurological and biological components of autism, compared to their original thoughts on how it was mostly caused by emotional factors (Lovaas, 1987). This shift in perspective led them to administer treatments such as discrete trial training (DTT) which offers an organized and systematic approach to treat behavioral struggles for those with autism (Lovaas, 1987). Social Skills Training (SST) Social skills training (SST) has a long-standing history originating over forty years ago, which makes it one of the oldest studied approaches in psychiatric rehabilitation (Mueser & Bellack, 2007). Social skills training aims to improve general social skills that allow individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to feel confident enough to learn to interact with people (Griffin et al., 2015). Michael Argyle was one of the pioneers in the investigation of social skills. Originally in 1967, he compared social skills to motor skills used in daily life, although he did acknowledge the differences (Pereira & Almir, n.d.). Since Argyle’s formulations, many other psychologists discussed and defined the topic with some including in spectrum of “social skills” almost everything that occurs during the interaction between two or more people, while others concluded that for an exchange mechanism to be considered a “skill” it must contribute to the ability and improvement of the individual (Pereira & Almir, n.d.). The concept of social skills training emerged shortly after, aimed to help develop such skills in individuals struggling with social interaction including those with ASD. Initially, the concept of social skills training stemmed from concepts such as conditioned reflex therapy, psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition, and social learning theory (Mueser & Bellack, 2007). These models proposed that behaviors can be achievable, changed, and improved when being subjected to systematic training and reinforcement (Mueser & Bellack, 2007). One of the first interventions that was used was called “assertiveness training”, which focused on enabling individuals to articulate their thoughts confidently and efficiently in social settings (Mueser & Bellack, 2007). The evolution of social skills training (SST) had a rise in awareness regarding the significance of addressing social skills in psychiatric rehabilitation, since poor social abilities were associated with people with severe mental illness (Mueser & Bellack, 2007).

Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA)
Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA) is an intervention in which the main purpose is to find the underlying causes of a certain behavior by implementing an effective plan
(Collet-Klingenberg, 2008). Functional behavior analysis can be traced back to B.F. Skinner’s work and the early days of ABA where it played a significant role in shaping the entire field of study. The term “functional analysis”, which is similar to FBA, was presented by Skinner in his William James Lectures during 1948 (Schlinger Jr. & Normand, 2013). He emphasized the importance of functional analysis in which he suggested shifting the focus on the reasoning behind a behavior instead of fixating on observable attributes (Schlinger Jr. & Normand, 2013). He also stressed that verbal behavior should be examined in terms of the reasoning behind the words that are being used and the effects it has on the environment or the listener (Schlinger Jr. & Normand, 2013). Skinner’s influence on functional behavior assessment showed the value in understanding behavior related to its function as well as the environmental factors that affect it (Schlinger Jr. & Normand, 2013). The focus on understanding core underlying issues behind certain behaviors reshaped the way psychologists interpreted the challenges with psychological disorders and conditions. Some more recent FBA studies were conducted involving single-subject and group designs with participants between the ages of 3 to 15 years old, specifically elementary-age students (Collet-Klingenberg, 2008). The results of the study showed that FBA is an accurate method in understanding and responding to behaviors in individuals with ASD, and still relevant today. (Collet-Klingenberg, 2008). Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is a behavioral intervention treatment system for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which aims to improve social communication skills by targeting “pivotal” developmental skills. Pivotal skills are defined in this context as “a set of targeted skills which, when successfully acquired, can elicit more widespread positive clinical gains in the child’s other domains of functioning” (Koegel et. al., 2019). This type of treatment dates back to the 1970s, during the period where behavioral interventions started to gain influence (Ventola et al., 2015). Pivotal response treatment was first known as the Natural Language Paradigm (NLP), which originated from the principles of ABA (Ventola et al., 2015). In the early stages, interventions concentrated on medical treatments involving drug administration and electroconvulsive shock therapy (Ventola et al., 2015). PRT began to gain traction for its aim on linguistic development in nonverbal children with autism (Ventola et al., 2015). At first, PRT helped children decide on specific items of their liking, followed by therapists’ communicative reinforcement by praising them. This led researchers to establish the foundation of what PRT would eventually develop into (Ventola et al., 2015). As the treatment method progressed, it focused on the child’s motivation including child’s choice, contingent reinforcement, interspersed maintenance, and acquisition tasks (Ventola et al., 2015). These techniques mentioned above have been associated in earlier psychological viewpoints and theories related to B.F. Skinner’s work on behaviorism and Albert Bandura’s proposed social learning theory.

Discussion Questions & Definitions
How were early approaches of ABA influenced by behaviorist theories?
DQ Answer: Early ABA approaches were motivated by observable behavior and conditioning models. Positive reinforcement, introduced by Skinner, was used to encourage
learning behaviors such as speech imitation. Aversive control was used to decrease negative behaviors such as self-injurious behavior. Note the lack of interest regarding internal drives and motivations of autistic individuals.

Why does the environment play a crucial role in behavior in ABA?
DQ Answer: The environment plays a crucial role in behavior because this shapes experiences, as well as it gives us different perceptions. If the environment comes along with
positive reinforcement, then it is more likely to repeat behavior. However, if the environment comes with a negative consequence, then it is more likely to stop behavior. Therefore, ABA uses positive reinforcement to improve individuals’ learning.

Considering the historical barriers women and marginalized groups have faced in fields such as applied behavior analysis (ABA), what are some strategies that can be implemented to encourage more diverse representation within this community?
DQ Answer: Firstly, raising awareness about the experiences of women and marginalized groups in the field of ABA is crucial. In addition, providing them with guidance, support and networking opportunities can help them overcome these obstacles and advance their careers, and therefore, will highly contribute to a more diverse and overall balanced field.

What are the possible benefits and ramifications of being culturally competent and sensitive in an ABA setting?
DQ Answer: The integration of cultural awareness and sensitivity is a key factor in enhancing the ethical practices of behavior analysts in ABA. Due to its recognition and
respectfulness of the diverse cultural backgrounds of clients, analysts are able to develop more effective and respectful relationships and treatments. Which will lead to more trust,
rapport, mutual understanding, and ultimately more effective treatment outcomes. Nonetheless, this could bring some challenges at hand, like the responsiveness towards said treatment, due to the identification and addressing of biases. In addition, navigating cultural differences ensures that interventions are tailored to meet the unique needs and preferences of each client. This infers the need for ongoing education in these topics, self-reflection, collaboration with clients and their families, and commitment to cultural humility and sensitivity.

How has the historical evolution in behavioral intervention approaches, including Discrete Trial Training (DTT), Social Skills Training (SST), Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA), and Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), influenced a change in the way that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was treated over time?
DQ Answer: Interventions were changed over time by shifting focus from psychodynamic therapies and emotional factors to more evidence-based and personalized approaches such as DTT, SST, FBA and PRT.

Definitions
Echolalia – Vocal repetition of others words/phrases, common in autistic children and a symptom frequently targeted during treatment.

Aversive Control – Causing discomfort in someone to change a behavior. Early ABA interventions hit and screamed at children to reduce negative behavior.

positive reinforcement – when presenting a desirable stimulus, such a sticker (reward) rapidly followed by a desired behavior. This will increase behavior to happen again
as the sticker functions as a positive reinforcement.

stimulus transfer control – a concept used in ABA that refers to the process where there is a specific behavior already learnt that is associated with a stimulus, then transfer to
another similar behavior.

Marginalized Groups – Groups that face systematic disadvantages because of factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and more. These individuals often experience
obstacles to resources and opportunities, which in turn, results in different treatment and unequal outcomes.

Diversity – This term refers to involving and recognizing the differences among individuals including their race, ethnicity, gender, and more, while also respecting them.

Behavioural Skills Training (BTS) – a structured approach to developing ethical decision-making skills, amongst behavioral analysts. This approach incorporates active
learning techniques such as modeling, role-playing, and feedback to enhance ethical competence and promote ethical behavior in clinical practices.

Cultural competence – is the ability of a person as well as the system to understand, respect, and respond to the diverse cultural needs of a population. In ABA, this refers to the
recognition and addressing of potential blind sports and biases stemming from cultural ignorance.

Discrete Trial Training (DTT) – a teaching method that is used for people with

autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in applied behavior analysis (ABA) that involves simplifying skills by breaking them down into smaller parts.

Functional Behaviour Assessment (FBA) – a systematic process which is used to understand the roots or reasoning behind certain behaviors, more specifically dysfunctional behaviors, involving individuals with cognitive impairments related to autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

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