20 Present-Day Applications of Humanistic Psychology

Chapter Citation

Ehinger, M., Bukofzer, L., Karamiyar, V., & Pandey, S. (2025) Present-Day Applications of Humanistic Psychology In Psychological Roots. BCcampus Press. Retrieved from https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/psychologicalroots/chapter/present-day-applications-of-humanistic-psychology/

Learning Objectives

1. Outline the historical principles of humanistic psychology as practiced and studied by Carl Rogers.
2. Examine how the humanistic psychology principles of unconditional positive regard, self-actualization, and self-fulfillment are applied in the context of modern-day therapies such as client-centered therapy, person-centered expressive arts therapy, emotional support animals, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.
3. Discusses the global impact of humanistic psychology, namely through its application in countries around the world.

Introduction

Rooted in the humanistic psychology movement of the mid-20th century, Humanistic therapy emerged as a response to the limitations of psychoanalysis and behavioural therapies. It emphasized self-actualization, a process of growth, development and realizing one’s unique talents and capacities; self-fulfillment, the feeling of satisfaction when one’s actual self is in congruence with their ideal self; and unconditional positive regard which is a characterized by a full acceptance of the client from the therapist regardless of their thoughts, feelings or behaviors. These foundational principles have since influenced diverse therapeutic modalities, including Person-Centred Expressive Arts therapy, Client-Centred therapy, Emotional Support Animals (ESAs), Animal-Assisted therapy (AAT) and Group therapy with Mindfulness-based Cognitive therapy (MBCT). The goal of the following chapter is to track how early humanistic principles such as unconditional positive regard, self-fulfillment and self-actualization are being applied in modern-day therapies such as person-centered expressive arts therapy, client-centred therapy, ESAs, AAT and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) group therapy. Client-Centered Therapy The client-centered approach developed by Carl Rogers in 1939, was a pioneering response to the limitations of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, the main therapeutic approaches during that period of time (Witty, 2007). Unlike psychoanalysis, which often placed the therapist in an authoritative role, or behaviorism, which focused on changing observable behaviors, Rogers introduced a more compassionate model of therapy. His approach highlighted creating a supportive, non-judgmental environment where clients felt free to explore their emotions, thoughts, and experiences (Witty, 2007). This marked a shift towards viewing the client as the expert on their own life, capable of navigating their personal struggles with the proper guidance and support. The core concepts of unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence, which are essential to the client-centered approach, laid the foundation for the broader humanistic therapy movement that started in the mid-20th century (Witty, 2007). This approach quickly gained international awareness for its simplicity and effectiveness in treating a wide range of personal struggles. It is now practiced across the globe in countries including the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Japan, Brazil, and South Africa, to name a few (Witty, 2007). This popular embracement highlights the global appeal of the humanistic principles Rogers introduced. By growing the empathy, non-directive support, and the empowerment of clients to realize their potential, the approach echoes across different cultural backgrounds (Witty, 2007). Its ability to excel beyond these boundaries and show how the principles of humanistic therapy, such as self-actualization and self-fulfillment, have become globally useful, outlining a therapeutic model that promotes holistic well-being in different communities. Rogers’ client-centered approach continues to shape new therapeutic practices, including person-centered expressive arts therapy, ESAs, AAT, and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT). These methods all indicate empathy and client empowerment, such as with person-centered expressive art therapy that offers a non-judgmental space for creativity or ESAs and AATs that focus on healing through having interactions with animals. These methods show how Carl Rogers’ principles are still central to therapeutic work today. According to Rogers, both individuals and environments can either help or block human growth. He believed that people are driven by self-regulating processes that lead to increased self-differentiation, better self-understanding, and acceptance. Rogers referred to this internal drive as the “actualizing tendency,” a motivation to reach and enhance one’s inherent capabilities (Witty, 2007). Witty (2007) explains that the actualizing tendency was a theoretical construct proposed by the great holistic neurologist Kurt Goldstein. With this construct, Carl Rogers suggests that all individuals naturally want to achieve their full potential; this concept is fundamental to the client-centered approach, as it guides the therapist’s role in trusting the client’s ability to grow and change (Witty, 2007). This belief in the client’s deep-rooted potential follows directly from the principles of self-actualization and self-fulfillment. Rogers’ motivation theory suggests the importance of freedom and self-direction in therapy, and the client-centered approach focuses on creating a non-judgmental space for personal growth (Witty, 2007). Self-actualization and respecting the client show how Carl Rogers’s ideas influenced the global support of the client-centered approach. The approach of trusting the clients has shaped many different therapeutic methods, showing its lasting impact on humanistic therapy worldwide. Carl Rogers’s idea of congruence in the client-centered approach is where the therapist is genuine and fully present, especially with the humanistic principles of self-actualization and self-fulfillment. This connection between therapist and client builds trust and creates a safe place for clients to explore their feelings and struggles, which is important for personal growth (Witty, 2007). Rogers’ unconditional positive regard illustrates the importance of non-judgmental acceptance in therapy. When therapists show this kind of acceptance, clients feel free to express themselves without fear of judgment (Witty, 2007). This creates the space for self-actualization, allowing clients to develop their confidence and work through their challenges, which supports the goals of humanistic therapy. The focus on empathy, authenticity, and client empowerment has made the client-centered approach strongly influential in having emotional resilience and holistic well-being across cultures.

Person-Centered Expressive Arts Therapy

Person-centered expressive arts therapy was founded in 1984 by Natalie Rogers, Carl Rogers’ daughter. Natalie Rogers was inspired by and worked with her father when creating person-centered expressive arts therapy, which is evident in the core principles and practices of this type, such as unconditional positive regard, self-actualization, and self-fulfillment. These three principles are practiced through meaningful artmaking in various modalities, such as movement/dance, fine arts, music, writing, poetry, and drama. Rogers first started her career as a play therapist with children. She then had her own private practice, where she employed humanistic therapy, inspired by her father. Here, she experimented with using art as a tool for treatment, using clay or paint with her clients. Building from this, Natalie Rogers and her father, Carl Rogers, organized the first person-centered therapy summer workshops in 1974, where they started by first learning and being trained in the person-centered approach. However, with time, Natalie Rogers began to try using art and movement in conjunction with the person-centered approach (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). From this, the core principles and theories of person-centered expressive arts therapy emerged. She started to develop concrete training and founded the Person-Centred Expressive Arts Therapy Institute in 1984 (Davidson, 2014). In 1998, she was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the International Expressive Arts Therapy Institute (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). Unconditional positive regard is present in person-centered expressive art therapy through the client-therapist relationship. Fostering an empathetic, trusting, and safe environment where the client feels validated and comfortable expressing themselves is important in this type of therapy. This is what Carl Rogers calls “person-centered safety,” and it is described as an environment that is non-judgmental and induces a feeling of psychological safety, which then allows the client to be able to fully be creative (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007, p.123). The therapist does not guide or diagnose the client through the contents of the art. The focus is on the process of expression rather than the product, and the client is continuously supported throughout the process (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). Rogers best illustrates this core principle of humanistic art therapy by trying to see and understand the client’s world through their art and consistently supporting them throughout this process (Rogers, 2025). Both Natalie Rogers and her father, Carl Rogers, say that their clients are their “greatest source of learning,” which really demonstrates the general attitude of the person-centered approach. It is one that is rooted in uplifting the client and believing in them unconditionally (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007, p. 123). Self-actualization and self-fulfillment are encouraged in this type of therapy through the treating of clients as the experts in their own life and healing journey. They decide on the direction they want to go, and the expressive arts therapist trusts them fully that they will reach their highest potential on their terms, in the way they wish. Rogers believes that clients know the best path for them to take, and this is supported and trusted by the therapist in sessions. Another way that self-actualization is fostered in this type of therapy is through the actual structure of the session. It is loose and centered around the client’s needs for that particular day/time. This allows the client to feel in control of their experience in therapy and eventually gain trust in themselves for what is best for them and what will be the best path for them to take. Self-actualization and self-fulfillment is also achieved by working on client rigidity. This is categorized as being closed off to learning and new experiences. The person-centered approach to expressive arts therapy works to provide opportunities for clients to be open to new experiences and learning to be open-minded. In turn, this helps the client achieve self-fulfillment and self-actualization because it allows the client to reach their greatest potential (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). All in all, person-centered expressive arts therapy is directly influenced by the original and historical principles of humanistic therapy: unconditional positive regard, self-actualization, and self-fulfillment. This type of therapy offers a unique and creative way to process trauma and difficult psychological states, as well as improve mental well-being and creative expression.

Emotional Support Animals and Animal-Assisted Therapy

Did you know that petting a dog can lower cortisol levels and reduce stress (Pendry & Vandagriff, 2019)? Animals not only make us happier, but they support our emotional well-being in numerous ways. Emotional support animals (ESAs) and animal-assisted therapy (AAT) both play an essential role in the promotion of emotional well-being. The use of animals to help individuals has been around for many centuries, dating back to ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome (National Service Animal Registry, 2025). In the 18th and 19th centuries, animals were introduced into medical institutions to support patients, especially in psychiatric hospitals (National Service Animal Registry, 2025). While ESAs offer therapeutic benefits, they are not considered a form of therapeutic intervention, unlike Animal-Assisted therapy (AAT). AAT is a structured approach that integrates trained animals into patients’ treatment process. AAT sessions are goal-oriented and designed to improve psychological health through interventional therapeutic activities (Jenkins et al., 2014). In contrast, ESAs do not require specialized training to perform tasks. Instead, they provide comfort to individuals with mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). ESAs are used for daily life, while AAT is considered a clinical intervention. The company of animals offers a form of unconditional companionship and emotional stability, which closely aligns with the principles of humanistic therapy. Humanistic therapy is a psychological approach that highlights unconditional positive regard, self-fulfillment and self-actualization. Carl Rogers helped start humanistic therapy and founded person-centred therapy (American Psychological Association, 2021). This section of the paper will explore how ESAs and AAT support psychological well-being through the lens of humanistic psychology. Furthermore, it will consider the ethical implications of involving animals in therapy. One of the core concepts of humanistic therapy is unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard simply means accepting and supporting individuals no matter what. Both ESAs and AATs create a sense of companionship between the animal and the client. They offer consistent emotional support without being judgmental (Wilder et al., 2023). Thus providing unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard emphasizes acceptance, empathy, and emotional validation, which are all traits that the two encompass. This connection is supported by research from Jenkins et al. (2014), who found that children who interacted with therapy dogs at school showed an increase in empathy and developed a more secure attachment to others (Jenkins et al., 2014). The results from this study align with Carl Rogers’s theory that empathetic and non-judgemental relationships create a space for emotional growth. Highlighting how therapy animals can act as supportive companions who provide emotional connection and comfort similar to human therapeutic relationships (Jenkins et al., 2014). Another core concept of humanistic therapy is self-actualization and self-fulfillment. Self-actualization is the approach of allowing patients to grow not only with support but also on their own. It is the process of reaching one’s full potential. Being able to regulate your emotions is very important for being successful in self-actualization. Petting animals increases the production of certain hormones, which can help with emotional regulation. Self-fulfillment, on the other hand, is when one feels whole and has found meaning in one’s life, for example, when someone feels they’ve achieved their goals. Intersecting with animals also encourages mindfulness, a grounded feeling of being present in the moment that aligns with the self-awareness and personal growth values of humanistic psychology. ESAs and AATs contribute to positive mental well-being, which goes hand in hand with self-actualization and self-fulfillment (Wilder et al., 2023). Having an ESA around supports stress reduction, emotional regulation and overall psychological health (Wilder et al., 2023). Humanistic psychology is focused on mutual respect and the capacity for growth. This means not just for clients but also for the animals. The use of animals in psychology is becoming more popular because of its effectiveness. However, most of the focus is on how people benefit from this form of therapy. There is minimal talk on the benefits ESAs and AATS have for the animals themselves (Fejsáková et al., 2009). Animals, just like humans, have feelings and emotions. They can get stressed, scared, tired or overwhelmed. The authors of the article Fejsáková et al. (2009) emphasize the lack of training in animal behaviour and body language among many therapists. This can lead to therapists unintentionally harming the animal (Fejsáková et al., 2009). For example, if a dog named Dot is panting excessively, this might indicate distress. Someone who isn’t adequately trained in animal behaviour might think that Dot is overheated rather than realizing that he might need a pause. Domesticated animals tend to react better in situations compared to non-domesticated ones (Fejsáková et al., 2009). In some extreme cases, monkeys who were being trained to be AATs have been subject to cruel procedures. Their teeth were removed so that they could be “safely used” in therapy. Shock collars were also used to control the monkeys in case of unpredictable behaviour. (Fejsáková et al., 2009). These practices are extremely unethical and reflect a disregard for the fundamental rights and welfare of the animals involved. Treating animals as disposable tools for human needs, with no regard for their physical or emotional well-being, is a form of exploitation that is ethically unjustifiable. Therapists, clients, and institutions that incorporate animals into their practices should be required to have extensive training in animal treatment and behaviours. Animal-Assisted Intervention International offers detailed guidelines for ethical animal treatment and welfare in therapy settings (Animal Assisted Services International, 2025). Animals are nonjudgmental and full of unconditional love. They accept individuals as they are and offer unconditional support through thick and thin. Both ESAs and AAT are tailored to the individual, providing a personalized approach to mental well-being. ESAs provide daily emotional comfort, and AAT incorporates animals into structured therapeutic sessions and practices. These forms of animal-assisted practices contribute not only to emotional regulation and stress relief but also to a more profound sense of self-fulfillment and self-actualization. Nonetheless, ethical considerations for both humans and animals must align with established guidelines. Training, respectful treatment, and the minimization of potential harm must be implemented to ensure the animals’ well-being. Therapeutic benefits must be mutual to both humans and animals. These practices demonstrate the healing connections between humans and animals, reminding us that emotional growth can often begin with compassion, acceptance and a furry friend.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) is an integrative approach blending mindfulness with cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in a group therapy setting. MBCT aids individuals in managing mental health conditions like depression, anxiety, and stress (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). MBCT originates from Jon Kabat-Zinn’s (1979) Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). MBSR demonstrated mindfulness’s effectiveness for stress and chronic conditions, laying the foundation for MBCT’s development. “Mindfulness is the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to things as they are”. (Williams, Teasdale, Segal, & Kabat-Zinn, 2007, p. 47) Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) aims to transform patients’ relationship with their thoughts and feelings by promoting acceptance and non-judgmental awareness (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). This is achieved through enhancing metacognitive awareness, enabling individuals to view thoughts as transient mental events rather than absolute truths, thus diminishing their impact (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). Additionally, MBCT facilitates improved emotional regulation by enhancing cortical control over limbic circuits (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

MBCT and Humanistic Therapy

By integrating core principles; self-awareness, non-judgmental presence, and present-moment focus, Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) demonstrates a strong alignment with humanistic therapy (Corey, 2015). Sipe and Eisendrath (2012) elaborate on this connection in the following ways. First, MBCT’s mindful practices foster self-awareness by quieting the mind and developing a deeper connection with one’s internal experience (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). Second, MBCT facilitates a non-judgmental presence through two interconnected aspects: the internal acceptance of one’s thoughts and experiences and the external non-judgmental group approach to sharing, both echoing the humanistic therapist’s unconditional positive regard (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). Finally, MBCT’s mindfulness practice, with its focus on present-moment awareness through the “being mode,” directly aligns with the humanistic principle emphasizing the “here and now” for self-discovery and growth (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

Self-Awareness

The principle of Humanistic therapy is Self-awareness, which is cultivated in MBCT by guiding individuals to observe internal experiences through mindfulness. As defined by Sipe and Eisendrath (2012), mindfulness is ‘paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to things as they are.’ This purposeful and directed attention enhances awareness of internal experiences, leading to greater self-understanding.

Present-Moment Focus

Another key principle of Humanistic therapy that is shared in MBCT is Present-moment focus, a core humanistic tenet, is emphasized through the ‘being mode’ practices that anchor attention to current experiences (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). By grounding individuals in the ‘here and now,’ MBCT helps interrupt rumination and cultivates a deeper connection with immediate experience.

Non-Judgmental Presence

The non-judgmental presence principle is fostered by accepting one’s internal experiences without alteration (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). This approach, grounded in mindfulness and modeled by therapists, is significantly enhanced by metacognitive awareness: a key component in the mechanism and neurological effects that enable individuals to experience thoughts as mental events, reducing judgment and creating a compassionate therapeutic environment (Zhang et al., 2021). The non-judgmental presence is also facilitated externally with the group setting that provides a safe space to share with full acceptance (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

Self-Actualization Shift to Self-Transcendence in MBCT Group Therapy Setting

The group setting offers the potential to guide participants from self-actualization toward self-transcendence by fostering a sense of connection to something larger than themselves through shared experiences, mutual support, and the recognition of interconnectedness – values similar to those central to collectivistic cultures like the Siksika nation. While Maslow initially focused on individual self-actualization, his later work recognized self-transcendence as experiencing oneself as part of something larger, providing deeper meaning (Ravilochan et al., 2021). Building on this, Kaufman (2020) suggests that self-transcendence, through integrating personal growth with a broader sense of connection and purpose, provides a deeper form of mental health support. The individual’s participation in the MBCT group setting has the potential to facilitate this progression.

Strengths and Limitations of MBCT

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) in a group setting has demonstrated various strengths and limitations in clinical applications and research. MBCT has proven to be an effective and efficient intervention for the prevention of depression relapse (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). It also shows promising results in the treatment of active depression, suggesting its potential for broader application in mood disorders (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). MBCT promotes enhanced awareness of one’s relationship to thoughts and feelings, fostering acceptance, self-compassion, present-moment awareness, and attentional control (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). Furthermore, neuroimaging studies indicate that MBCT enhances the cortical regulation of limbic circuits involved in affective disorders (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). In Zhang et al. study comparing MBCT-A with CBT-A for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), MBCT-A was found to be equally effective as CBT-A in reducing anxiety symptoms (Zhang et al., 2021). Specifically, after the 8-week therapy period, participants in the MBCT-A group showed greater improvement in areas such as overall well-being and depression (Zhang et al., 2021). However, in a three-month follow-up, some participants in the MBCT-A group did not maintain these improvements, suggesting that while MBCT-A is effective in the short term, sustaining its benefits may be challenging. Moreover, there is a need for more randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating MBCT against active, credible control therapies to further validate its effectiveness (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

Further Research Suggestions

While MBCT shows promise, further research is needed. This research should compare MBCT to other effective therapies to better understand its relative efficacy. Furthermore, studies should aim to identify which specific components of MBCT contribute most to its therapeutic benefits (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

Conclusion

In summary, Carl Rogers’ humanistic principles, unconditional positive regard, self-fulfillment, and self-actualization profoundly shaped modern psychotherapy. Rogers’ client-centered approach, emphasizing empathy, congruence, and non-judgmental acceptance, empowered clients to explore their potential and gained global recognition (Witty, 2007). Rogers’s influence is evident in subsequent therapies. Person-centered expressive arts therapy, founded by Natalie Rogers (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007), applies these principles through creative expression, offering a non-judgmental space for self-exploration and healing. This therapy focuses on the art-making process to foster self-actualization and self-fulfillment. ESAs and AATs also exemplify humanistic principles through non-judgmental companionship and emotional connection. Human-animal interactions foster emotional stability and well-being (Wilder et al., 2024), with ESAs and AAT providing acceptance, reducing stress, and contributing to self-actualization and self-fulfillment. Mindfulness-based cognitive Therapy (MBCT) uses metacognitive awareness to help individuals experience thoughts as mental events, free of judgment, creating an internal compassionate therapeutic environment that is often amplified within the group setting (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012). This environment, reflecting Rogers’ unconditional positive regard, supports self-fulfillment and self-actualization that can potentially evolve to self-transcendence, a later concept to Humanistic thought brought by Maslow (Ravilochan et al., 2021). Thanks to the MBCT group settings, individuals have the potential to feel they are part of something greater than themselves, which promotes a strong foundation for mental health treatments (Kaufman, 2020). Rogers’s belief in the ‘actualizing tendency’ remains central. Ultimately, Rogers’ legacy and the humanistic movement lie in their commitment to client empowerment, authenticity, and holistic well-being, including the profound impact of non-judgmental acceptance, whether from a therapist, a group or an animal.

Study Resources

Key Terms

Actualization tendency = Internal drive – a motivation to reach and enhance one’s inherent capabilities (Witty, 2007)

Congruence = The client-centered approach where the therapist is genuine and fully present, especially with the humanistic principles of self-actualization and self-fulfillment (Witty, 2007)

Person-centered safety = An environment that is non-judgmental and induces a feeling of psychological safety which then allows the client to be able to fully be creative (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007, p.123).

Client rigidity = A client who is closed off to learning and new experiences in a therapeutic setting (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007).

Emotional support animals (ESAs) = animals that provide comfort and emotional support to individuals with mental health conditions, such as anxiety or depression (Wilder et al., 2023).
Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) = involves trained animals being integrated into a structured therapeutic process, where they assist in achieving specific treatment goals for clients (Jenkins et al., 2014).

Being mode = A technique in MBCT in group therapy that anchors attention to current experiences (Sipe & Eisendrath, 2012).

Metacognitive awareness = A key component in the mechanism and neurological effects that enable individuals to experience thoughts as mental events, reducing judgment and creating a compassionate therapeutic environment (Zhang, et al., 2021).

Discussion Question: In what ways do the core principles of empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard foster a more inclusive and culturally adaptable approach to therapy?

Discussion Question Answer: The core principles of empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard in Carl Rogers’ client-centered approach make it naturally inclusive and adaptable across different cultures. These principles prioritize understanding the client from their own perspective, which helps reduce cultural bias and allows therapists to meet individuals where they are emotionally, socially, and culturally (Witty, 2007).

Discussion Question: In what ways does person-centred expressive arts therapy help to move past client rigidity?

Discussion Question Answer: The person-centered approach to expressive arts therapy works to provide opportunities for clients to be open to new experiences and learning to be open-minded. In turn, this helps the client achieve self-fulfillment and self-actualization because it helps the client reach their greatest potential (Sommers-Flanagan, 2007).

Discussion Question: How can the integration of Emotional Support Animals (ESAs) and Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) into therapeutic practices be balanced to ensure the ethical treatment of animals?

Discussion Question Answer: Therapeutic practices must include comprehensive training for therapists on animal behaviour, welfare, and communication to balance the integration of Emotional Support Animals (ESAs) and Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) while ensuring ethical treatment. This ensures that animals are not overworked, stressed, or harmed. Providing animals with regular breaks, proper care, and the monitoring of their physical and emotional well-being are essential for ethical treatment (Fejsáková et al., 2009).

Discussion Question: How does MBCT in a group setting offer the opportunity for individuals to move from self-actualization to self-transcendence?
Discussion Question Answer: The group setting offers the potential to guide participants from self-actualization toward self-transcendence by fostering a sense of connection to something larger than themselves through shared experiences, mutual support, and the recognition of interconnectedness.

References
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