{"id":124,"date":"2019-08-07T16:55:28","date_gmt":"2019-08-07T20:55:28","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/psychologyh5p\/chapter\/lifespan-theories\/"},"modified":"2021-07-15T01:06:22","modified_gmt":"2021-07-15T05:06:22","slug":"lifespan-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/psychologyh5p\/chapter\/lifespan-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Lifespan Theories","rendered":"Lifespan Theories"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nBy the end of this section, you will be able to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Discuss Freud\u2019s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Discuss Piaget\u2019s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Describe Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories in this section.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm9486704\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Psychosexual Theory of Development<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp101552384\">While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud's psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one's personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp17260896\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Psychosocial Theory of Development<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994), another stage theorist, took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"244\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160406\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp44010080\">Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp78141888\">According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp28052240\">As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm11970368\">Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child\u2019s initiative?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp121307472\">During the elementary school stage (ages 6\u201312), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don\u2019t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm106362992\">In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm3479392\">People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm20206656\">When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm76494672\">From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" style=\"width: 100%\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption><colgroup> <col data-align=\"center\" \/> <col data-align=\"center\" \/> <col \/> <col \/><\/colgroup>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental Task<\/th>\r\n<th>Description<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\r\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\r\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\r\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\r\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\r\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\r\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\r\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\r\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp81579744\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Theory of Development<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm85742544\">Jean <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Piaget<\/span> (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_Piaget\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"244\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160409\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"408\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Jean Piaget spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp110824304\">Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <span data-type=\"term\">Schemata<\/span> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <span data-type=\"term\">assimilation<\/span> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <span data-type=\"term\">Accommodation<\/span> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm60742368\">For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp22669008\">Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_02\" style=\"width: 100%\" summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\"><caption><span data-type=\"title\">Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/span><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th>Stage<\/th>\r\n<th>Description<\/th>\r\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\r\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\r\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\r\n<td>Object permanence\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nStranger anxiety<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\r\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Pretend play\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nEgocentrism\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nLanguage development<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\r\n<td>Conservation\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nMathematical transformations<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\r\n<td>Formal operations\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nUtilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\r\n<td>Abstract logic\r\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\r\nMoral reasoning<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp56821952\">The first stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">sensorimotor<\/span> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <span data-type=\"term\">object permanence<\/span>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.<span id=\"fs-idm71993456\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp98894096\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nPlease take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp27877904\">In Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp23070304\">Piaget\u2019s second stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">preoperational stage<\/span>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em data-effect=\"italics\">operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em data-effect=\"italics\">pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <span data-type=\"term\">conservation<\/span>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<span id=\"fs-idp112474080\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp14260096\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nThis video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">A typical child on Piaget's conservation tasks<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm74218240\">During this stage, we also expect children to display <span data-type=\"term\">egocentrism<\/span>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective.<span id=\"fs-idp85848704\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm58469024\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox\">\r\n\r\nPiaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">Piaget's Mountains Task<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v4oYOjVDgo0[\/embed]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp29026704\">Piaget\u2019s third stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">concrete operational stage<\/span>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm70772416\">Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <span data-type=\"term\">reversibility<\/span>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1063008\">The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <span data-type=\"term\">formal operational stage<\/span>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm12704528\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp87026896\">As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm26685008\">According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm82938496\">It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm109594576\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Test Your Understanding<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">[h5p id=\"494\"]<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Theory of Moral Development<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm62190208\">A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is discerning right from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Kohlberg<\/span> (1927\u20131987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development. Before reading about the stages, take a minute to consider how you would answer one of Kohlberg's best-known moral dilemmas, commonly known as the Heinz dilemma:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idm98780736\">\r\n<div>In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: \u201cNo, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.\u201d So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379)<\/div><\/blockquote>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm100393248\">How would you answer this dilemma? Kohlberg was not interested in whether you answer yes or no to the dilemma: Instead, he was interested in the reasoning behind your answer.<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp29430288\">After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people\u2019s responses and placed them in different <span data-type=\"term\">stages of moral reasoning<\/span>. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Kohlberg placed in the highest stage responses that reflected the reasoning that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife\u2019s life is more important than the pharmacist making money. The value of a human life overrides the pharmacist\u2019s greed.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_KohlStage\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160414\/CNX_Psych_09_03_KohlStage.jpg\" alt=\"Nine boxes are arranged in rows and columns of three. The top left box contains \u201cLevel 1, Pre-conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 1, Obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 2, Individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards.\u201d The middle left box contains \u201cLevel 2, Conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 3, Interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 4, Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order.\u201d The lower left box contains \u201cLevel 3, Post-conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 5, Social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 6, Universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"557\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional: Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm91341472\">It is important to realize that even those people who have the most sophisticated, post-conventional reasons for some choices may make other choices for the simplest of pre-conventional reasons. Many psychologists agree with Kohlberg's theory of moral development but point out that moral reasoning is very different from moral behavior. Sometimes what we say we would do in a situation is not what we actually do in that situation. In other words, we might \u201ctalk the talk,\u201d but not \u201cwalk the walk.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm18098592\">How does this theory apply to males and females? Kohlberg (1969) felt that more males than females move past stage four in their moral development. He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities. These ideas were not well received by Carol Gilligan, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who consequently developed her own ideas of moral development. In her groundbreaking book, <em data-effect=\"italics\">In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women\u2019s Development<\/em>, Gilligan (1982) criticized her former mentor\u2019s theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning\u2014she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in the Heinz dilemma, many girls and women respond that Heinz should not steal the medicine. Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine, is arrested, and is put in jail, then he and his wife will be separated, and she could die while he is still in prison.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm81386384\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Test Your Understanding<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">[h5p id=\"492\"]<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h1>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm1051792\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud\u2019s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm80571712\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Review Questions<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">[h5p id=\"335\"]<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Critical Thinking Questions<\/h1>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm44143904\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp27791552\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\"><details><summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each.<\/span><\/summary>Assimilation is when we take in information that is comparable to what we already know. Accommodation is when we change our schemata based on new information. An example of assimilation is a child\u2019s schema of \u201cdog\u201d based on the family\u2019s golden retriever being expanded to include two newly adopted golden retrievers. An example of accommodation is that same child\u2019s schema of \u201cdog\u201d being adjusted to exclude other four-legged furry animals such as sheep and foxes.\r\n\r\n<\/details>&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<details><summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development?<\/span><\/summary>Gilligan criticized Kohlberg because his theory was based on the responses of upper class White men and boys, arguing that it was biased against women. While Kohlberg concluded that women must be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities, Gilligan disagreed, suggesting that female moral reasoning is not deficient, just different.\r\n\r\n<\/details>&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<details><summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.<\/span><\/summary>Egocentrism is the inability to take the perspective of another person. This type of thinking is common in young children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. An example might be that upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better.\r\n\r\n<\/details><\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm307904\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Personal Application Questions<\/h1>\r\n<div id=\"fs-idp19172512\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\">\r\n<div id=\"fs-idm1900448\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp98541200\">Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories to deal with each of the difficulties listed below:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<ol id=\"fs-idm54954960\" data-number-style=\"upper-alpha\">\r\n \t<li>Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog's food.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she\u2019s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h1>\r\n[h5p id=\"337\"]\r\n<h3>Media Attributions<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence<\/a>\" by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC9N3210QbLWZzhFwwDkyEqw\">Geert Stienissen<\/a>. Standard YouTube License.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">A typical child on Piaget's conservation tasks<\/a>\" by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UCyd5F4mIIlTizPsPWdrQnnw\">munakatay<\/a>. Standard YouTube License.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">Piaget's Mountains Task<\/a>\" by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UCF7uvJRg2zciuT_Rcia6HOg\">UofMNCYFC<\/a>. Standard YouTube License.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>By the end of this section, you will be able to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Discuss Freud\u2019s theory of psychosexual development<\/li>\n<li>Describe the major tasks of child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson<\/li>\n<li>Discuss Piaget\u2019s view of cognitive development and apply the stages to understanding childhood cognition<\/li>\n<li>Describe Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories in this section.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm9486704\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Psychosexual Theory of Development<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp101552384\">While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud&#8217;s psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one&#8217;s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the chapter on personality.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp17260896\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Psychosocial Theory of Development<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994), another stage theorist, took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<figure style=\"width: 244px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160406\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp44010080\">Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp78141888\">According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant\u2019s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby\u2019s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp28052240\">As toddlers (ages 1\u20133 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler\u2019s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working to establish independence. This is the \u201cme do it\u201d stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm11970368\">Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3\u20136 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child\u2019s initiative?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp121307472\">During the elementary school stage (ages 6\u201312), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don\u2019t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm106362992\">In adolescence (ages 12\u201318), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent\u2019s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWhat do I want to do with my life?\u201d Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people\u2019s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents\u2019 ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm3479392\">People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm20206656\">When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life\u2019s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm76494672\">From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson\u2019s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \u201cwould have,\u201d \u201cshould have,\u201d and \u201ccould have\u201d been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" style=\"width: 100%\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption>\n<colgroup>\n<col data-align=\"center\" \/>\n<col data-align=\"center\" \/>\n<col \/>\n<col \/><\/colgroup>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Developmental Task<\/th>\n<th>Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idp81579744\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Cognitive Theory of Development<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm85742544\">Jean <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Piaget<\/span> (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_Piaget\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<figure style=\"width: 244px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160409\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Piaget.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Jean Piaget in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"408\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jean Piaget spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp110824304\">Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. <span data-type=\"term\">Schemata<\/span> are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: <span data-type=\"term\">assimilation<\/span> is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. <span data-type=\"term\">Accommodation<\/span> describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm60742368\">For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, \u201cLook mommy, dog!\u201d Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake\u2019s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake\u2019s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp22669008\">Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_02\" style=\"width: 100%\" summary=\"A four columned table outlines Piaget's stages of cognitive development. From left to right, the rows are labeled \u201cAge (years); Stage; Description; and Developmental issues.\u201d The first row contains \u201c0-2; sensorimotor; world experienced through senses and actions; and object permanence, stranger anxiety.\u201d The second row contains \u201c2-6; preoperational; use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning; and pretend play, egocentrism, language development.\u201d The third row contains \u201c7-11; concrete operational; understand concrete events and analogies logically, perform arithmetical operations; and conservation, mathematical transformations\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c12-; formal operational; formal operations, utilize abstract reasoning; and abstract logic, moral reasoning.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Piaget\u2019s Stages of Cognitive Development<\/span><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Age (years)<\/th>\n<th>Stage<\/th>\n<th>Description<\/th>\n<th>Developmental issues<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>0\u20132<\/td>\n<td>Sensorimotor<\/td>\n<td>World experienced through senses and actions<\/td>\n<td>Object permanence<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Stranger anxiety<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Preoperational<\/td>\n<td>Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Pretend play<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Egocentrism<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Language development<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Concrete operational<\/td>\n<td>Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical operations<\/td>\n<td>Conservation<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Mathematical transformations<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>12\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Formal operational<\/td>\n<td>Formal operations<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Utilize abstract reasoning<\/td>\n<td>Abstract logic<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"newline\"><\/div>\n<p>Moral reasoning<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p id=\"fs-idp56821952\">The first stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">sensorimotor<\/span> stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops <span data-type=\"term\">object permanence<\/span>, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &amp; Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants\u2019 reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.<span id=\"fs-idm71993456\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp98894096\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>Please take a few minutes to view this brief video demonstrating different children\u2019s ability to understand object permanence: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">Piaget &#8211; Stage 1 &#8211; Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/NCdLNuP7OA8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp27877904\">In Piaget\u2019s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can\u2019t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp23070304\">Piaget\u2019s second stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">preoperational stage<\/span>, which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child\u2019s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term <em data-effect=\"italics\">operational<\/em> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be <em data-effect=\"italics\">pre<\/em>-operational). Children\u2019s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny\u2019s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <span data-type=\"term\">conservation<\/span>, which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<span id=\"fs-idp112474080\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idp14260096\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">A typical child on Piaget&#8217;s conservation tasks<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"A typical child on Piaget&#39;s conservation tasks\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/gnArvcWaH6I?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm74218240\">During this stage, we also expect children to display <span data-type=\"term\">egocentrism<\/span>, which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let\u2019s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko\u2019s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective.<span id=\"fs-idp85848704\" data-type=\"media\" data-alt=\"\"><\/span><\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm58469024\" class=\"note psychology link-to-learning\" data-type=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div class=\"textbox\">\n<p>Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">Piaget&#8217;s Mountains Task<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Piaget&#39;s Mountains Task\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v4oYOjVDgo0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idp29026704\">Piaget\u2019s third stage is the <span data-type=\"term\">concrete operational stage<\/span>, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm70772416\">Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of <span data-type=\"term\">reversibility<\/span>, which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1063008\">The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget\u2019s theory is the <span data-type=\"term\">formal operational stage<\/span>, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.<\/p>\n<div id=\"fs-idm12704528\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"2\">\n<h2 data-type=\"title\">Beyond Formal Operational Thought<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp87026896\">As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget\u2019s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget\u2019s discrete stages (Courage &amp; Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia &amp; Spelke, 2010).<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm26685008\">According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons &amp; Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm82938496\">It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief &amp; Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm109594576\" class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Test Your Understanding<\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<div id=\"h5p-494\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-494\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"494\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Ch 9 Lifespan Theories\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Theory of Moral Development<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm62190208\">A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is discerning right from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Kohlberg<\/span> (1927\u20131987) extended upon the foundation that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of their particular stage of moral development. Before reading about the stages, take a minute to consider how you would answer one of Kohlberg&#8217;s best-known moral dilemmas, commonly known as the Heinz dilemma:<\/p>\n<blockquote id=\"fs-idm98780736\">\n<div>In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman&#8217;s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: \u201cNo, I discovered the drug and I&#8217;m going to make money from it.\u201d So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man&#8217;s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379)<\/div>\n<\/blockquote>\n<p id=\"fs-idm100393248\">How would you answer this dilemma? Kohlberg was not interested in whether you answer yes or no to the dilemma: Instead, he was interested in the reasoning behind your answer.<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idp29430288\">After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people\u2019s responses and placed them in different <span data-type=\"term\">stages of moral reasoning<\/span>. According to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve. Kohlberg placed in the highest stage responses that reflected the reasoning that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife\u2019s life is more important than the pharmacist making money. The value of a human life overrides the pharmacist\u2019s greed.<\/p>\n<div id=\"Figure_09_03_KohlStage\" class=\"bc-figure figure\">\n<figure style=\"width: 649px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2293\/2017\/08\/01160414\/CNX_Psych_09_03_KohlStage.jpg\" alt=\"Nine boxes are arranged in rows and columns of three. The top left box contains \u201cLevel 1, Pre-conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 1, Obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 2, Individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards.\u201d The middle left box contains \u201cLevel 2, Conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 3, Interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 4, Authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order.\u201d The lower left box contains \u201cLevel 3, Post-conventional Morality.\u201d A line connects this box with another box to the right containing \u201cStage 5, Social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights.\u201d To the right is another box connected by a line containing \u201cStage 6, Universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles.\u201d\" width=\"649\" height=\"557\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional: Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"fs-idm91341472\">It is important to realize that even those people who have the most sophisticated, post-conventional reasons for some choices may make other choices for the simplest of pre-conventional reasons. Many psychologists agree with Kohlberg&#8217;s theory of moral development but point out that moral reasoning is very different from moral behavior. Sometimes what we say we would do in a situation is not what we actually do in that situation. In other words, we might \u201ctalk the talk,\u201d but not \u201cwalk the walk.\u201d<\/p>\n<p id=\"fs-idm18098592\">How does this theory apply to males and females? Kohlberg (1969) felt that more males than females move past stage four in their moral development. He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities. These ideas were not well received by Carol Gilligan, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who consequently developed her own ideas of moral development. In her groundbreaking book, <em data-effect=\"italics\">In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women\u2019s Development<\/em>, Gilligan (1982) criticized her former mentor\u2019s theory because it was based only on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not deficient in their moral reasoning\u2014she proposed that males and females reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and the importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in the Heinz dilemma, many girls and women respond that Heinz should not steal the medicine. Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine, is arrested, and is put in jail, then he and his wife will be separated, and she could die while he is still in prison.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm81386384\" class=\"summary\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Test Your Understanding<\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<div id=\"h5p-492\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-492\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"492\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Ch 9 Lifespan Theories Quiz 2\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Summary<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-idm1051792\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud\u2019s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that explains how children think and reason as they move through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm80571712\" class=\"review-questions\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Review Questions<\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<div id=\"h5p-335\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-335\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"335\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Ch.9 Lifespan Theories (OS Questions)\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Critical Thinking Questions<\/h1>\n<div id=\"fs-idm44143904\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idp27791552\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<details>\n<summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation? Provide examples of each.<\/span><\/summary>\n<p>Assimilation is when we take in information that is comparable to what we already know. Accommodation is when we change our schemata based on new information. An example of assimilation is a child\u2019s schema of \u201cdog\u201d based on the family\u2019s golden retriever being expanded to include two newly adopted golden retrievers. An example of accommodation is that same child\u2019s schema of \u201cdog\u201d being adjusted to exclude other four-legged furry animals such as sheep and foxes.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg\u2019s theory of moral development?<\/span><\/summary>\n<p>Gilligan criticized Kohlberg because his theory was based on the responses of upper class White men and boys, arguing that it was biased against women. While Kohlberg concluded that women must be deficient in their moral reasoning abilities, Gilligan disagreed, suggesting that female moral reasoning is not deficient, just different.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary><span style=\"font-size: 14pt\">\u00a0 \u00a0 What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.<\/span><\/summary>\n<p>Egocentrism is the inability to take the perspective of another person. This type of thinking is common in young children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development. An example might be that upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"fs-idm307904\" class=\"personal-application\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Personal Application Questions<\/h1>\n<div id=\"fs-idp19172512\" class=\"exercise\" data-type=\"exercise\">\n<div id=\"fs-idm1900448\" class=\"problem\" data-type=\"problem\">\n<p id=\"fs-idp98541200\">Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories to deal with each of the difficulties listed below:<\/p>\n<ol id=\"fs-idm54954960\" data-number-style=\"upper-alpha\">\n<li>Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog&#8217;s food.<\/li>\n<li>Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball.<\/li>\n<li>Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle.<\/li>\n<li>Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life.<\/li>\n<li>Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she\u2019s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor.<\/li>\n<li>Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h1>\n<div id=\"h5p-337\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-337\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"337\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Ch.9 Lifespan Theories (OS Glossary)\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h3>Media Attributions<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8\">Piaget &#8211; Stage 1 &#8211; Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence<\/a>&#8221; by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UC9N3210QbLWZzhFwwDkyEqw\">Geert Stienissen<\/a>. Standard YouTube License.<\/li>\n<li>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I\">A typical child on Piaget&#8217;s conservation tasks<\/a>&#8221; by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UCyd5F4mIIlTizPsPWdrQnnw\">munakatay<\/a>. Standard YouTube License.<\/li>\n<li>&#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0\">Piaget&#8217;s Mountains Task<\/a>&#8221; by <a class=\"yt-simple-endpoint style-scope yt-formatted-string\" style=\"font-size: 14pt\" href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/channel\/UCF7uvJRg2zciuT_Rcia6HOg\">UofMNCYFC<\/a>. 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