{"id":131,"date":"2019-10-07T14:03:49","date_gmt":"2019-10-07T18:03:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=131"},"modified":"2020-06-26T14:33:05","modified_gmt":"2020-06-26T18:33:05","slug":"female-gladiators-and-venatores","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/female-gladiators-and-venatores\/","title":{"raw":"Female Gladiators and Venatores","rendered":"Female Gladiators and Venatores"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In this section you will learn<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>female gladiators and\u00a0<em>venatores<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>when they were introduced to Rome<\/li>\r\n \t<li>who they fought alongside<\/li>\r\n \t<li>public reaction to women in the arena<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_306\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"3986\"]<img class=\"wp-image-306 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"3986\" height=\"3141\" \/> This is the only inscription we have showing female gladiators; it shows two women, Amazonia and Achillea, and says that they were stantes [pb_glossary id=\"101\"]missones[\/pb_glossary] \u2013 released after they had fought to a standstill. We do however have another inscription from Ostia that refers to the first fight involving female gladiators there, and several literary references.[\/caption]\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--sidebar textbox--examples\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In modern terms<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">We have no specific word for a female gladiator, the closest is the rare word, <em><a href=\"http:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/morph?l=l\u016bd\u012da&amp;la=la&amp;can=l\u016bd\u012da0&amp;d=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=ludia&amp;i=1#lexicon\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">ludia<\/a>,\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0used for a female slave attached to a gladiatorial school, but this word is used for the girlfriend or lover of a gladiator rather than a female gladiator.<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nIt is difficult to talk about the reality of life for female gladiators, because our sources often dwell on their sexy or unusual aspects, as a way to show what a special treat the audience is being given. (Special in gladiatorial games means expensive.) And the amount of sexy female gladiators in modern reimagining of the games shows that we haven't changed that much. Kathleen Coleman (2000), however, argues that female gladiators were, on the whole, professionally trained speciality gladiators. Her work is invaluable for any discussion of female gladiators and I follow her in what I say below.\r\n\r\nIt is also difficult to say for sure when women appeared in the arena as gladiators first. We have a law from 19 CE, called the\u00a0<em>Senatus Consultum from Larinum;\u00a0<\/em>Larinum (modern Larino) was a town in the South of Italy. \u00a0It says, among other things, that the daughters, grand-daughters, and great-grand-daughters of senators cannot appear on stage or in the arena - nor can the wives, daughters. and grand-daughters of equestrians. This law mentions an earlier one of 11 CE that forbid freeborn girls under 20 from entering the arena. As generally you don't forbid things unless they are actually happening it seems likely that some elite women were appearing in the arena.\r\n\r\nLater, the historian [pb_glossary id=\"584\"]Tacitus[\/pb_glossary] mentions elite women appearing in the arena under Nero in the year 63 CE:\r\n<blockquote>To the Roman equestrians he assigned places in the circus in front of the seats of the people, for up to that time they used to enter in an indiscriminate mass, as the Roscian law extended only to fourteen rows in the theatre. The same year witnessed shows of gladiators as magnificent as those of the past. However, many prominent matrons and senators disgraced themselves by appearing in the amphitheatre.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Tacitus\">Tacitus<\/a>, <em>Annales <\/em>15.32<\/blockquote>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_824\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-824 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-300x252.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"252\" \/><\/a> Either Gladiator Venator or Hunter fighting a bear[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Emperor Titus held games for the inauguration of the Colosseum; these games included <em>[pb_glossary id=\"97\"]venationes[\/pb_glossary] <\/em>with female <em>[pb_glossary id=\"96\"]venatores[\/pb_glossary]. <\/em>\r\n<blockquote>There was a battle between cranes and also between four elephants; nine thousand animals both domestic and wild were killed and women (not those of any prominence, however) took part in dispatching them.\r\n\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"575\"]Cassius Dio[\/pb_glossary], <em>Epitome <\/em>Book 66<\/blockquote>\r\nHis brother and successor [pb_glossary id=\"622\"]Domitian[\/pb_glossary] also had female gladiators fight in the Colosseum, along with dwarfs.\r\n<blockquote>Domitian would also frequently stage the games also at night, and sometimes he would pit dwarfs and women against each other.\r\n\r\nCassius Dio, <em>Epitome <\/em>Book 67\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\nIn the middle of this noise and the new luxuries there appear women trained to wield the sword wildly daring to fight like men. You would believe that the Amazons of Thermodon were fighting wildly by Tanais or savage Phasis.[footnote]The Amazons, a legendary race of female warriors, were thought to have lived by the River Thermondon. Tanais and Phasis are rivers in Scythia \u2013 the Tanais is the modern Don and Phasis is the river Bion.\u00a0[\/footnote] Now a bold unit of dwarfs appears, whose growth nature suddenly cut short, binding them in one movement into a knotted lump. They give and receive wounds and threaten death with tiny hands. Mars, our father, and bloody <em>Virtus <\/em>laugh and cranes hover over the scattered loot marvel at the tiny fighters.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Statius\">Statius<\/a>, <em>Silvae<\/em> 1.6.52-64<\/blockquote>\r\nMartial\u2019s poems on Domitian\u2019s games in the Colosseum also mention female gladiators and <em>venatores<\/em>.\r\n<blockquote>That warlike Mars serves you with his unconquerable weapons, Caesar, is not enough: Venus herself also serves you.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Martial\">Martial<\/a>, <em>On Spectacles <\/em>6\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\nLegend used to sing of the lion killed in the great valley, a feat worthy of [pb_glossary id=\"714\"]Hercules[\/pb_glossary] \u2013 let ancient belief be silent! For after your <em>[pb_glossary id=\"82\"]munera[\/pb_glossary], <\/em>Caesar, for we now admit that this has been done by a woman warrior.\r\n\r\nMartial, <em>On Spectacles <\/em>6b<\/blockquote>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_828\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-828 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1920\" \/><\/a> Two Venatores fighting a tiger.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nJuvenal, in a satire on the evils of women,[footnote]Juvenal wrote a number of satires, all about the various evils of different groups.[\/footnote] talks of high-born ladies running off and training with gladiators.\r\n<blockquote>Decorate your doors and doorposts with wreaths of laurel,[footnote]Laurels being display was a Roman sign of victory.[\/footnote] so your noble son, Lentulus, may show in his tortoiseshell cradle the face of Euryalus[footnote]Presumably the name of a famous gladiator.[\/footnote] or of a <em>[pb_glossary id=\"94\"]murmillo[\/pb_glossary]<\/em>!\r\n\r\nWhen Eppia, the senator's wife, ran off with a gladiator to Pharos and the Nile and the ill-famed city of Lagus, [pb_glossary id=\"715\"]Canopus[\/pb_glossary] itself cried shame upon the monstrous morals of our town. Forgetting her home, husband, and sister, without thinking of her country, she shamelessly abandoned her weeping children; and--something that will astonish you--deserted Paris[footnote]Paris is a traditional name for a mime. Juvenal believed women were especially prone to losing themselves completely over mimes and their sexy dancing.[\/footnote] and the games. Though born wealthy, though as a tiny body she slept in a gaudy cradle on the paternal down, she cared nothing about the sea, just as she had long cared nothing for her good name---a loss thought trivial among our soft, litter-riding matrons. And so she bravely endured the tossing and the roaring of the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas, and all the many seas she had to cross. For when danger comes in a right and honourable way, a woman's heart freezes with fear and dread and she cannot stand upon her trembling feet: but if she be doing a bold, bad thing, her courage fails not. For a husband to order his wife on board ship is cruelty: the bilge-water sickens her and the sky goes round and round. But if she is running away with a lover, she feels no qualms: then she vomits over her husband; now she messes around with the sailors, she roams about the deck, and loves hauling at hard ropes. And what were the youthful charms which captivated Eppia? What did she see in him to allow herself to be called a <em>ludia<\/em>?[footnote]<em>Ludia <\/em>can refer to an actress, a female gladiator or a gladiator\u2019s wife.[\/footnote] Her darling Sergius had already begun to shave; a wounded arm gave promise of a discharge, and there were a range of deformities in his face: a scar caused by the helmet; a huge boil on his nose; and a nasty fluid always dribbling from his eye. But then he was a gladiator! It is this that transforms these fellows into Hyacinths![footnote]A mythical boy of great beauty, whom the god Apollo loved.[\/footnote] It was this that she preferred to children and to country, to sister and to husband. What these women love is the sword: had this same Sergius no longer been a gladiator, he would have been no better than a Veiento.\u2026\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_940\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"503\" \/><\/a> Victorious gladiator brandishing a sica.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhy do I need to talk of the woollen cloaks [footnote]The reference is to a type of coarse cloak worn by athletes.[\/footnote]and the wrestling-oils used by women? Who has not seen one of them striking a stump, piercing it through and through with a blade, lunging at it with a shield, and going through all the proper motions?----a matron truly qualified to blow a trumpet at the <a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aiii-festivals\/#Florales\">Floralia<\/a>! Unless, indeed, she is nursing some further ambition in her bosom, and is practising for the real arena. What modesty can you expect in a woman who wears a helmet, rejects her gender, and delights in feats of strength? Yet she would not choose to be a man, knowing the superior joys of womanhood. What a fine thing for a husband, at an auction of his wife's effects, to see her belt and armlets and plumes put up for sale, with a greave that covers half the left leg; or if she fights another sort of battle, how charmed you will be to see your young wife disposing of her greaves! Yet these are the women who find the thinnest of thin robes too hot for them; whose delicate flesh is chafed by the finest of silk cloth. See how she pants as she goes through her prescribed exercises; how she bends under the weight of her helmet; how big and coarse are the bandages which enclose her haunches; and then laugh when she lays down her arms and shows herself to be a woman!\r\n\r\nJuvenal, <em>Satire <\/em>6 (extracts; translation adapted from A.S. Kline)<\/blockquote>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--readings\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Bibliography and Further Reading<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Coleman, Kathleen. (2000). \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca\/stable\/3185234\">Missio at Halicarnassus<\/a>.\u201d Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100: 487-500.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>McCullough, A. (2008). Female Gladiators in Imperial Rome: Literary Context and Historical Fact. <i>The Classical World,<\/i> <i>101:<\/i> 197-209. Retrieved February 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org\/stable\/25471938<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<strong>Online<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Natalie Hayes discusses the Hunger Games and female gladiators in Rome for the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/culture\/story\/20151120-did-female-gladiators-exist\">BBC<\/a><\/li>\r\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/penelope.uchicago.edu\/~grout\/encyclopaedia_romana\/gladiators\/amazones.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Female Gladiators<\/a> - an informative and well referenced article from the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/penelope.uchicago.edu\/~grout\/encyclopaedia_romana\/notaepage.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Notae<\/a>\u00a0<\/i>section of Penelope.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In this section you will learn<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>female gladiators and\u00a0<em>venatores<\/em><\/li>\n<li>when they were introduced to Rome<\/li>\n<li>who they fought alongside<\/li>\n<li>public reaction to women in the arena<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_306\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-306\" style=\"width: 3986px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-306 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"3986\" height=\"3141\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators.jpg 3986w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-768x605.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-1024x807.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-65x51.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-225x177.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Ch-9-Female-Gladiators-350x276.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 3986px) 100vw, 3986px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-306\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This is the only inscription we have showing female gladiators; it shows two women, Amazonia and Achillea, and says that they were stantes [pb_glossary id=\"101\"]missones[\/pb_glossary] \u2013 released after they had fought to a standstill. We do however have another inscription from Ostia that refers to the first fight involving female gladiators there, and several literary references.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--sidebar textbox--examples\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In modern terms<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">We have no specific word for a female gladiator, the closest is the rare word, <em><a href=\"http:\/\/www.perseus.tufts.edu\/hopper\/morph?l=l\u016bd\u012da&amp;la=la&amp;can=l\u016bd\u012da0&amp;d=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=ludia&amp;i=1#lexicon\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">ludia<\/a>,\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0used for a female slave attached to a gladiatorial school, but this word is used for the girlfriend or lover of a gladiator rather than a female gladiator.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>It is difficult to talk about the reality of life for female gladiators, because our sources often dwell on their sexy or unusual aspects, as a way to show what a special treat the audience is being given. (Special in gladiatorial games means expensive.) And the amount of sexy female gladiators in modern reimagining of the games shows that we haven&#8217;t changed that much. Kathleen Coleman (2000), however, argues that female gladiators were, on the whole, professionally trained speciality gladiators. Her work is invaluable for any discussion of female gladiators and I follow her in what I say below.<\/p>\n<p>It is also difficult to say for sure when women appeared in the arena as gladiators first. We have a law from 19 CE, called the\u00a0<em>Senatus Consultum from Larinum;\u00a0<\/em>Larinum (modern Larino) was a town in the South of Italy. \u00a0It says, among other things, that the daughters, grand-daughters, and great-grand-daughters of senators cannot appear on stage or in the arena &#8211; nor can the wives, daughters. and grand-daughters of equestrians. This law mentions an earlier one of 11 CE that forbid freeborn girls under 20 from entering the arena. As generally you don&#8217;t forbid things unless they are actually happening it seems likely that some elite women were appearing in the arena.<\/p>\n<p>Later, the historian <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_584\">Tacitus<\/a> mentions elite women appearing in the arena under Nero in the year 63 CE:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>To the Roman equestrians he assigned places in the circus in front of the seats of the people, for up to that time they used to enter in an indiscriminate mass, as the Roscian law extended only to fourteen rows in the theatre. The same year witnessed shows of gladiators as magnificent as those of the past. However, many prominent matrons and senators disgraced themselves by appearing in the amphitheatre.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Tacitus\">Tacitus<\/a>, <em>Annales <\/em>15.32<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_824\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-824\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-824 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-300x252.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"252\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-300x252.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-1024x859.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-768x645.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-65x55.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-225x189.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf-350x294.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf.jpg 1145w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-824\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Either Gladiator Venator or Hunter fighting a bear<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Emperor Titus held games for the inauguration of the Colosseum; these games included <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_97\">venationes<\/a> <\/em>with female <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_96\">venatores<\/a>. <\/em><\/p>\n<blockquote><p>There was a battle between cranes and also between four elephants; nine thousand animals both domestic and wild were killed and women (not those of any prominence, however) took part in dispatching them.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_575\">Cassius Dio<\/a>, <em>Epitome <\/em>Book 66<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>His brother and successor <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_622\">Domitian<\/a> also had female gladiators fight in the Colosseum, along with dwarfs.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Domitian would also frequently stage the games also at night, and sometimes he would pit dwarfs and women against each other.<\/p>\n<p>Cassius Dio, <em>Epitome <\/em>Book 67<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p>In the middle of this noise and the new luxuries there appear women trained to wield the sword wildly daring to fight like men. You would believe that the Amazons of Thermodon were fighting wildly by Tanais or savage Phasis.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Amazons, a legendary race of female warriors, were thought to have lived by the River Thermondon. Tanais and Phasis are rivers in Scythia \u2013 the Tanais is the modern Don and Phasis is the river Bion.\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-131-1\" href=\"#footnote-131-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Now a bold unit of dwarfs appears, whose growth nature suddenly cut short, binding them in one movement into a knotted lump. They give and receive wounds and threaten death with tiny hands. Mars, our father, and bloody <em>Virtus <\/em>laugh and cranes hover over the scattered loot marvel at the tiny fighters.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Statius\">Statius<\/a>, <em>Silvae<\/em> 1.6.52-64<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Martial\u2019s poems on Domitian\u2019s games in the Colosseum also mention female gladiators and <em>venatores<\/em>.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>That warlike Mars serves you with his unconquerable weapons, Caesar, is not enough: Venus herself also serves you.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Martial\">Martial<\/a>, <em>On Spectacles <\/em>6<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p>Legend used to sing of the lion killed in the great valley, a feat worthy of <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_714\">Hercules<\/a> \u2013 let ancient belief be silent! For after your <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_82\">munera<\/a>, <\/em>Caesar, for we now admit that this has been done by a woman warrior.<\/p>\n<p>Martial, <em>On Spectacles <\/em>6b<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_828\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-828\" style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-828 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1920\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg 2560w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-2048x1536.jpg 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-65x49.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-225x169.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011-350x263.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-828\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Two Venatores fighting a tiger.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Juvenal, in a satire on the evils of women,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Juvenal wrote a number of satires, all about the various evils of different groups.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-2\" href=\"#footnote-131-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> talks of high-born ladies running off and training with gladiators.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Decorate your doors and doorposts with wreaths of laurel,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Laurels being display was a Roman sign of victory.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-3\" href=\"#footnote-131-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> so your noble son, Lentulus, may show in his tortoiseshell cradle the face of Euryalus<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Presumably the name of a famous gladiator.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-4\" href=\"#footnote-131-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> or of a <em><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_94\">murmillo<\/a><\/em>!<\/p>\n<p>When Eppia, the senator&#8217;s wife, ran off with a gladiator to Pharos and the Nile and the ill-famed city of Lagus, <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_131_715\">Canopus<\/a> itself cried shame upon the monstrous morals of our town. Forgetting her home, husband, and sister, without thinking of her country, she shamelessly abandoned her weeping children; and&#8211;something that will astonish you&#8211;deserted Paris<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Paris is a traditional name for a mime. Juvenal believed women were especially prone to losing themselves completely over mimes and their sexy dancing.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-5\" href=\"#footnote-131-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> and the games. Though born wealthy, though as a tiny body she slept in a gaudy cradle on the paternal down, she cared nothing about the sea, just as she had long cared nothing for her good name&#8212;a loss thought trivial among our soft, litter-riding matrons. And so she bravely endured the tossing and the roaring of the Tyrrhenian and Ionian Seas, and all the many seas she had to cross. For when danger comes in a right and honourable way, a woman&#8217;s heart freezes with fear and dread and she cannot stand upon her trembling feet: but if she be doing a bold, bad thing, her courage fails not. For a husband to order his wife on board ship is cruelty: the bilge-water sickens her and the sky goes round and round. But if she is running away with a lover, she feels no qualms: then she vomits over her husband; now she messes around with the sailors, she roams about the deck, and loves hauling at hard ropes. And what were the youthful charms which captivated Eppia? What did she see in him to allow herself to be called a <em>ludia<\/em>?<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ludia can refer to an actress, a female gladiator or a gladiator\u2019s wife.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-6\" href=\"#footnote-131-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Her darling Sergius had already begun to shave; a wounded arm gave promise of a discharge, and there were a range of deformities in his face: a scar caused by the helmet; a huge boil on his nose; and a nasty fluid always dribbling from his eye. But then he was a gladiator! It is this that transforms these fellows into Hyacinths!<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"A mythical boy of great beauty, whom the god Apollo loved.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-7\" href=\"#footnote-131-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> It was this that she preferred to children and to country, to sister and to husband. What these women love is the sword: had this same Sergius no longer been a gladiator, he would have been no better than a Veiento.\u2026<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_940\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-940\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"503\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator.jpg 676w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator-179x300.jpg 179w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator-610x1024.jpg 610w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator-65x109.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator-225x377.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Female_gladiator-350x587.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-940\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Victorious gladiator brandishing a sica.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Why do I need to talk of the woollen cloaks <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The reference is to a type of coarse cloak worn by athletes.\" id=\"return-footnote-131-8\" href=\"#footnote-131-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a>and the wrestling-oils used by women? Who has not seen one of them striking a stump, piercing it through and through with a blade, lunging at it with a shield, and going through all the proper motions?&#8212;-a matron truly qualified to blow a trumpet at the <a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aiii-festivals\/#Florales\">Floralia<\/a>! Unless, indeed, she is nursing some further ambition in her bosom, and is practising for the real arena. What modesty can you expect in a woman who wears a helmet, rejects her gender, and delights in feats of strength? Yet she would not choose to be a man, knowing the superior joys of womanhood. What a fine thing for a husband, at an auction of his wife&#8217;s effects, to see her belt and armlets and plumes put up for sale, with a greave that covers half the left leg; or if she fights another sort of battle, how charmed you will be to see your young wife disposing of her greaves! Yet these are the women who find the thinnest of thin robes too hot for them; whose delicate flesh is chafed by the finest of silk cloth. See how she pants as she goes through her prescribed exercises; how she bends under the weight of her helmet; how big and coarse are the bandages which enclose her haunches; and then laugh when she lays down her arms and shows herself to be a woman!<\/p>\n<p>Juvenal, <em>Satire <\/em>6 (extracts; translation adapted from A.S. Kline)<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<hr \/>\n<hr \/>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--readings\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Bibliography and Further Reading<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Coleman, Kathleen. (2000). \u201c<a href=\"http:\/\/www.jstor.org.ezproxy.library.ubc.ca\/stable\/3185234\">Missio at Halicarnassus<\/a>.\u201d Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100: 487-500.<\/li>\n<li>McCullough, A. (2008). Female Gladiators in Imperial Rome: Literary Context and Historical Fact. <i>The Classical World,<\/i> <i>101:<\/i> 197-209. Retrieved February 14, 2020, from www.jstor.org\/stable\/25471938<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Online<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Natalie Hayes discusses the Hunger Games and female gladiators in Rome for the <a href=\"http:\/\/www.bbc.com\/culture\/story\/20151120-did-female-gladiators-exist\">BBC<\/a><\/li>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/penelope.uchicago.edu\/~grout\/encyclopaedia_romana\/gladiators\/amazones.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Female Gladiators<\/a> &#8211; an informative and well referenced article from the <i><a href=\"https:\/\/penelope.uchicago.edu\/~grout\/encyclopaedia_romana\/notaepage.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Notae<\/a>\u00a0<\/i>section of Penelope.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr \/>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"media-attributions clear\" prefix:cc=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/ns#\" prefix:dc=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\"><h2>Media Attributions<\/h2><ul><li about=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/carolemage\/17590535705\/\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/carolemage\/17590535705\/\" property=\"dc:title\">Marble relief with female gladiators, 1st-2nd century AD, from Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum, Turkey), British Museum<\/a>  &copy;  <a rel=\"dc:creator\" href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/people\/41523983@N08\" property=\"cc:attributionName\">Photo by Carole Raddato<\/a>    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)<\/a> license<\/li><li about=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gladiator-B%C3%A4renkampf.jpg\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Gladiator-B%C3%A4renkampf.jpg\" property=\"dc:title\">Gladiator-B\u00e4renkampf<\/a>  &copy;  <a rel=\"dc:creator\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:BS_Thurner_Hof\" property=\"cc:attributionName\">Uploaded by BC Thurner Hof<\/a>    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)<\/a> license<\/li><li about=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mosaic_museum_Istanbul_2007_011.jpg\" property=\"dc:title\">Mosaic museum Istanbul 2007 011<\/a>      is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a> license<\/li><li about=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Female_gladiator.jpg\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Female_gladiator.jpg\" property=\"dc:title\">Female gladiator<\/a>  &copy;  <a rel=\"dc:creator\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Adri08\" property=\"cc:attributionName\">Uploaded by Adi08<\/a>    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a> license<\/li><\/ul><\/div><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-131-1\">The Amazons, a legendary race of female warriors, were thought to have lived by the River Thermondon. Tanais and Phasis are rivers in Scythia \u2013 the Tanais is the modern Don and Phasis is the river Bion.\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-2\">Juvenal wrote a number of satires, all about the various evils of different groups. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-3\">Laurels being display was a Roman sign of victory. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-4\">Presumably the name of a famous gladiator. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-5\">Paris is a traditional name for a mime. Juvenal believed women were especially prone to losing themselves completely over mimes and their sexy dancing. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-6\"><em>Ludia <\/em>can refer to an actress, a female gladiator or a gladiator\u2019s wife. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-7\">A mythical boy of great beauty, whom the god Apollo loved. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-131-8\">The reference is to a type of coarse cloak worn by athletes. <a href=\"#return-footnote-131-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div><div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_131_584\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_584\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Publius Cornelius Tacitus was born outside Italy, possibly in Gaul, to an equestrian family and went on to become a senator and eventually consul. One of the greatest Roman historians, whose histories do not survive intact. He wrote the <em>Annals<\/em> and <em>Histories<\/em> which survive in part; and a biography of his father-in-law Agricola (the <em>Agricola<\/em>), an ethnographic work on Germany (the<em> Germania<\/em>), and one on oratory (the <em>Dialogue on Oratory<\/em>): these last three are extant.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_97\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_97\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Beast hunts, sometimes in staged settings. A wide range of domestic and exotic animals were hunted. Although dangerous, a venatio was not necessarily fatal for the hunters, who were given weapons and had some protection.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_96\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_96\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A trained beast hunter. Not to be confused with criminals who were thrown to the beasts as a form of execution; although fighting wild animals is never going to be a safe endeavour, these were trained professionals, who were armed. There was a ludus in Rome dedicated to training them, the Ludus Matutinus. Venatores were usually part of the morning show.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_575\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_575\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A consul and a historian, he wrote in Greek. He wrote a 60 book history of Rome from the landing of Aeneas in Italy until 229 CE. Some of the history is extant in its original form, some of it only exists in epitomes or summaries by a range of later authors. His name is sometimes written Dio Cassius.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_622\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_622\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The third and last of the emperors of the Flavian Dynasty, Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus, he ruled from 81-91. He was assassinated by the Senate and is remembered in the historical record as an example of imperial cruelty and viciousness.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_714\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_714\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A mythical Greek hero who performed many labours. One of those was killing a great lion.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_82\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_82\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Literally \u201cgift\u201d, \u201cduty\u201d, or \u201cfavour\u201d, particularly one owed to the dead. As gladiatorial shows were given to honour the dead and in accordance with vows they were called munera. A munus in this sense was a private obligation and thus the cost was paid by whoever vowed it, not the state. Later the munera were integrated into the other games and incorporated into imperial spectacles.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_94\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_94\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A heavily armed gladiator whose helmet had a decorative murmillo, a type of salt-water fish, on it. He had a large oblong shield behind which he crouched and used a gladius, a short thrusting sword.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_131_715\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_131_715\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>An town in Egypt on the Nile Delta. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":801,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-131","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":35,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/131","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/801"}],"version-history":[{"count":22,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/131\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":941,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/131\/revisions\/941"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/35"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/131\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=131"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=131"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=131"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=131"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}