{"id":160,"date":"2019-10-07T16:04:39","date_gmt":"2019-10-07T20:04:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=160"},"modified":"2020-08-13T12:34:21","modified_gmt":"2020-08-13T16:34:21","slug":"imperial-fans","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/imperial-fans\/","title":{"raw":"Imperial Fans","rendered":"Imperial Fans"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In this section you will learn about:<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>imperial fans of chariot racing and how they expressed their love of the races<\/li>\r\n \t<li>emperors who raced their own chariots and how shocking that was to the Romans (or, at least, the Romans who wrote about it)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nMany emperors were enthusiastic spectators of the races; some even went so far as to train as charioteers, building their own private racetracks in the city for the purpose; Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, better known as Caligula, built his own on the Vatican Hill, which stood roughly where St Peter's now stands.\r\n<blockquote>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_975\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus.jpg\"><img class=\"size-medium wp-image-975\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-300x234.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"234\" \/><\/a> Caligula's Circus was also known as the Circus of Nero[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCaligula also gave many games in the Circus which lasted from early morning until evening; at one time he\u2019d introduce between the races a baiting of panthers and now the manoeuvres of the game called Troy;[footnote]This, the <em>lusus Troaia, <\/em>was a complicated set of equestrian manouvers by aristocratic youths. It usually took place on the Campus Martius and sometimes resulted in major injuries.\u00a0\u00a0[\/footnote] some, too, of remarkable splendour, in which the Circus race floor was strewn with red and green,[footnote] To match the colours of the Red and Green teams respectively.[\/footnote] while the charioteers were all senators. He also started some games at random, such as when a few people called for them from the neighbouring balconies,[footnote]Referring to the buildings surrounding the Circus Maximus.[\/footnote] as he was inspecting the outfit of the Circus from the Gelotian house.[footnote]Located on the Palatine Hill. It was originally a private house owned by a wealthy freedman of Augustus, called Gelos, but was incorporated into the imperial palace at some point.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Suetonius\">Suetonius<\/a>, <em>Caligula <\/em>18.3<\/blockquote>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_980\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"411\"]<img class=\" wp-image-980\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-300x236.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"411\" height=\"323\" \/> This shows the circus overlaid on the current plan of St Peter's. This was outside the walls of Rome, although it was only the other side of the Tiber. Image from Wikimedia Commons, by <span class=\"mw-mmv-source-author\"><span class=\"mw-mmv-author mw-mmv-source\">Jos\u00e9 Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro<\/span><\/span>.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCaligula's short reign was marked by his mental instability, and his treatment of people at the games was not consistently generous and kind:\r\n<blockquote>He treated the other classes[footnote]Previous to this Suetonius had been talking about his treatment of the elites.[\/footnote] with similar disdain and cruelty.\u00a0 When he was disturbed by the noise made by those who came in the middle of the night to get free seats in the Circus [Maximus], he drove them all out with clubs, and in the confusion more than twenty Roman equestrians were crushed to death, with as many matrons[footnote]In other words, women considered respectable by the Romans.[\/footnote] and a countless number of others. At the plays in the theatre, he scattered the gift tickets ahead of time to create animosity between the plebs and the equestrians to induce the mob to steal seats reserved for equestrians.[footnote]Tickets were normally tossed out to the crowds during the course of events, a bit like t-shirts are now. Some tickets could be for huge prizes, and quite naturally if the poorer folk came in first and saw tickets on the seats kept for the elite, they would rush to sit in those sits and ignore any security trying to get them out.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nSuetonius, <em>Caligula <\/em>26.4<\/blockquote>\r\n<strong><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>The 2nd century CE historian [pb_glossary id=\"575\"]Cassius Dio[\/pb_glossary] adds more detail to our picture of Caligula\u2019s enthusiasm for the games:\r\n<blockquote>This was the kind of emperor into whose hands the Romans then fell into. Hence the deeds of Tiberius,[footnote]The previous emperor, who was not well liked.[\/footnote] though they were felt to have been very harsh, were nevertheless as far superior to those of Gaius [Caligula] as the deeds of Augustus were to those of Tiberius. For Tiberius always kept power in his own hands and used others as agents for carrying out his wishes; whereas Gaius was ruled by the charioteers and gladiators, and was the slave of the actors and others connected with the stage. Indeed, he always kept Apelles, the most famous of the tragic actors of that day, with him even in public.[footnote]\u00a0 The modern cult of celebrity makes this seem innocuous, but in Rome actors were<em> infamis, <\/em>that is they were not at all respectable company for a senator, let alone an emperor. Not that that really stopped most people. \u00a0[\/footnote] So he by himself and they by themselves did without any restraints all that people like that naturally dare to do when given power. \u00a0He organized and arranged everything relevant to their art in the most lavish manner at the slightest excuse, and he forced the [pb_glossary id=\"100\"]praetors[\/pb_glossary] and the [pb_glossary id=\"106\"]consuls[\/pb_glossary] to do the same, so that almost every day some performance of the kind was sure to be given. At first he was but a spectator and listener at these and would take sides for or against various performers like one of the crowd; and one time, when he was annoyed with those who didn't agree with him, he did not go to the spectacle. But as time went on, he came to imitate, and to compete in many events, driving chariots, fighting as a gladiator, giving exhibitions of <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/case-study-the-great-pantomime-riots-of-rome\/\">pantomimic dancing<\/a>, and acting in tragedy. So much for how he normally behaved. Once he sent an urgent summons at night to the leading men of the Senate, as if for some important discussion, and then danced before them.[footnote]Whenever I try and visualize this words fail me.[\/footnote]\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--sidebar textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nIn many of the ancient discussions of Caligula's behaviour at the games we see him publicly humiliate or harm a number of groups. Try to create a list of the different groups he humiliates and think about why he targetted them.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nYet after doing all this he later killed the best and the most famous of these slaves by poisoning. He did the same also with the horses and charioteers of the rival factions; for he was strongly attached to the Greens, which from this colour was called also the Faction of the Leek. Even to\u2011day the place where he used to practise driving the chariots is called the Gaianum after him.[footnote] Originally, an open racetrack it became a circus and was known as the Circus of Gaius or the Vatican Circus.[\/footnote] He used to invite one of the horses, which he named Incitatus, to dinner, where he would offer him golden barley and drink his health in wine from golden goblets; he swore by the animal's life and fortune and even promised to appoint him consul, a promise that he would certainly have carried out if he had lived longer.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#CassiusDio\">Cassius Dio<\/a>, <em>Roman History <\/em>59<\/blockquote>\r\nAfter Caligula, came Claudius, and then Claudius' stepson Nero (of whom more can be read <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/case-study-i-nero\/\">here<\/a>). Nero was also very fond of chariot racing, even going so far as to invent a 10 horse chariot race which he competed in at the Olympics \u2013 he fell out of the chariot and had to be popped back in; although didn\u2019t complete the race he still won. It\u2019s good to be the emperor.\r\n<blockquote>Even when Nero was very young he had a deep passion for horses and talked constantly about the games in the Circus, though he was forbidden to do so. Once when he was lamenting with his fellow pupils the fate of a charioteer of the Greens, who was dragged by his horses, and his teacher scolded him, he lied and pretended that he was talking about Hector.[footnote] The mythical Greek hero Achilles dragged Hector\u2019s body behind his chariot after he had killed him at Troy, an episode that is recounted in Homer's <em>Odyssey, <\/em>which was a text elite Romans read as part of their education.[\/footnote] When he first became emperor he used to play every day with ivory chariots on a board, and he came from the country to all the games, even the most insignificant, at first secretly and then so openly that no one doubted that he would be in Rome on days when races where held. He made no secret of his wish to have the number of prizes increased, and in consequence more races were added and the performance was continued until very late, while the managers of the factions no longer thought it worth while to produce their drivers at all except for a full day's racing. He soon longed to drive a chariot himself and even to show himself frequently before the public. After a trial exhibition in his gardens before his slaves and the dregs of the people, he gave everyone an opportunity of seeing him in the Circus Maximus, one of his freedmen dropping the napkin from the place usually occupied by the magistrates.\r\n\r\nSuetonius, <em>Nero <\/em>21<\/blockquote>\r\nAfter Nero took his show on the road, touring Greece, and competing at various games there (always victoriously, of course), he gave a show in Naples.\r\n<blockquote>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_983\" align=\"alignleft\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"wp-image-983\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"400\" \/><\/a> Bust of Nero[\/caption]\r\n\r\nReturning from Greece, since it was at Naples that he had made his first appearance, he entered that city with white horses through a part of the wall which had been knocked down, as is customary with victors in the sacred games.[footnote]All Greek games \u2013 the Olympics, the Pythian, the Nemean, and so forth \u2013 were held in honour of different gods, hence they were called sacred.[\/footnote] In the same way he entered Antium, then Albanum, and finally Rome; but at Rome he rode in the chariot which Augustus had used in his triumphs in the past, and wore a purple robe and a Greek cloak adorned with stars of gold, bearing on his head the Olympic crown and in his right hand the Pythian one, while the other crowns were carried before him with inscriptions telling where he had won them and against what competitors, and giving the titles of the songs or of the subject of the plays.[footnote]Some Greek games, like the Pythian, included artistic competitions, which Nero competed in. In others which did not have this component, like the Olympics, he just added them in. And he rearranged the entire circuit of the games so that all the major games were held in the same year so he could win them all in one go. Again, it is good to be the emperor.[\/footnote] His chariot was followed by his supporters as by the escort of a triumphal procession, who shouted that they were the attendants of Augustus and the soldiers of his triumph. Then from through the arch of the Circus Maximus, which had been knocked down, he made his way across the Velabrum and the Forum to the Palatine and the temple of Apollo. All along the route sacrificial victims were killed, the streets were sprinkled from time to time with perfume, while birds,[footnote]People released birds as he went through town, like they sometimes do at weddings now. They did not throw birds at him as he went by.[\/footnote] ribbons, and sweets were showered upon him. He placed the sacred crowns in his bedrooms around the couches, as well as statues representing him as a lyre-player, and he had a coin struck showing the same design.\r\n\r\nSuetonius, <em>Nero <\/em>25.1-2<\/blockquote>\r\nNero committed suicide in 68 CE, and that ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty. After a period of chaos and civil wars, the Flavian dynasty under Vespasian ruled Rome. \u00a0[pb_glossary id=\"624\"]Titus[\/pb_glossary], the second emperor of the\u00a0 dynasty, had also an interest in the races, but did not indulge it publicly to such a degree.\r\n<blockquote>He was brought up at court in company with Britannicus[footnote]The Emperor Claudius\u2019 son, poisoned by Nero at a dinner party.[\/footnote] and taught the same subjects by the same teachers. At that time, so they say, a [pb_glossary id=\"548\"]physiognomist[\/pb_glossary] was brought in by Narcissus, Claudius\u2019 freedman, to examine Britannicus and declared most positively that he would never become emperor; but that Titus, who was standing nearby at the time, would surely rule. The boys were so friendly that it is believed that when Britannicus drained the fatal drink, Titus, who was reclining at his side, also tasted the potion and for a long time suffered from a lingering illness. Titus did not forget any of this and later set up a golden statue of his friend in the Palace, and dedicated another equestrian statue of ivory, which is to this day carried in the procession in the Circus, and he attended it on its first appearance.[footnote]It is entirely possible that all of this is true. It is also true that commemorating his friendship with Britannicus was politically very convenient after Nero's death and disgrace.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nSuetonius, <em>Titus <\/em>2<\/blockquote>\r\n[pb_glossary id=\"622\"]Domitian[\/pb_glossary], Titus\u2019 younger brother and successor (and also the final Flavian emperor), also enjoyed the chariot races and expanded their number by dropping the number of laps in a race:\r\n<blockquote>He also celebrated Secular games,[footnote]The <em>Ludi Saeculares <\/em>were celebrated by Augustus in 15 BCE; as they were supposed to be held only every 110 years so the next time they should have been held would have been 94\/5 CE. However, Claudius said that Augustus had wrongly calculated and held them during his reign. Domitian insisted Augustus had been right and so held the games according to the schedule set up by Augustus. Basically these games were extra special and being able to throw them for the people would bring great popularity.[\/footnote] calculating the time, not according to the year when Claudius had last given them, but by the previous calculation of Augustus. In the course of these he reduced the number of laps from seven to five to make it possible to finish a hundred races on the day of contests in the Circus.\r\n\r\nSuetonius,<em> Domitian <\/em>4.3<\/blockquote>\r\nHe also added two new, short-lived factions:\r\n<blockquote>He also made many innovations in common customs. He did away with the distribution of food to the people and revived the custom of formal dinners.[footnote]That is, instead of giving them food that they might have to go away and cook themselves, he set up mass dinners for the people where it was served cooked to them. (Many Romans did not have access to cooking faciilties in their residences, so they would have to take meat to be cooked somewhere.)[\/footnote] He added two factions of drivers in the Circus, with gold and purple as their colours, to the four former ones.[footnote]These new factions appear to have been very short-lived.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nSuetonius,<em> Domitian <\/em>7.1<\/blockquote>\r\n[gallery link=\"file\" ids=\"815,810,809\"]\r\n\r\nEmperors and dynasties came and went, with all emperors understanding the importance of giving the people different types of spectacles, and especially chariot racing. This not only entertained people but allowed food and (sometimes) money to be distributed, but also gave emperors an unparalleled opportunity to address the people of Rome en masse.[footnote]With no PA system available, information could also be relayed by cards or announcers.[\/footnote]. Caracalla was emperor of Rome from 198-217; he was supposed to rule with his brother Geta. He had him killed instead, which was efficient, although not an action calculated to improve family feeling. He is probably best known now as the emperor who extended Roman citizenship to all the free born men in the Roman Empire, which helped him raise the tax to build his <a href=\"https:\/\/www.livius.org\/articles\/place\/rome\/rome-photos\/rome-baths-of-caracalla\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">baths<\/a> (still standing in part) in Rome. He was also immensely fond of chariot racing.\r\n<blockquote>After this[footnote]The death of Septimius Severus in 211; Severus took power after the assassination of Commodus. Caracalla ruled until 217; the Severan dynasty ruled (with interruptions) until 235).\u00a0[\/footnote] Antoninus [Caracalla] ruled alone; nominally, it is true, he shared it with his brother, but in reality he ruled alone from the first days. He drew up treaties with the enemy, withdrew from their territory, and abandoned the forts; as for his own people, he dismissed some, including Papinian, the prefect, and killed others, among them Euodus his tutor, Castor, and his wife Plautilla, and her brother Plautius.\u00a0Even in Rome itself he killed a man who was renowned for no other reason than his profession, which made him very conspicuous. I\u00a0refer to Euprepes the charioteer. He killed him because he supported the opposite faction to the one he himself favoured. So Euprepes was put to death in his old age, after having won the crown in a vast number of races; for he had won seven hundred and eighty-two races, a record equalled by no one else.\r\n\r\nThe emperor [Caracalla] himself kept spending the money upon the army, as we have said, and upon wild beasts and horses; for he was for ever killing vast numbers of animals, both wild and domesticated, forcing us to supply most of them, though he did buy a few. One day he killed a hundred boars at one time with his own hands. He also used to drive chariots, wearing the Blue costume. In everything he was very hot-headed and very erratic, and he furthermore possessed the craftiness of his mother and the Syrians, to which race she belonged. He would appoint some freedman or other wealthy person to be director of the games in order that the man might spend money in this way also; and he would salute the spectators with his whip from the arena below and beg for gold pieces like a performer of the lowest class. He claimed that he used the Sun god's method in driving, and prided himself upon it. To such an extent was the entire world, so far as it owned his sway, devastated throughout his whole reign, that on one occasion the Romans at a horse-race shouted in unison this, among other things: \"We shall do the living to death, that we may bury the dead.\"\r\n\r\nCassius Dio, <em>Epitome of Roman History <\/em>78<\/blockquote>\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><em>See also <a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/imperial-sponsorship-of-the-games\/\">the section on emperors and the games.<\/a><\/em><\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<hr \/>\r\n\r\n&nbsp;","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">In this section you will learn about:<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>imperial fans of chariot racing and how they expressed their love of the races<\/li>\n<li>emperors who raced their own chariots and how shocking that was to the Romans (or, at least, the Romans who wrote about it)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Many emperors were enthusiastic spectators of the races; some even went so far as to train as charioteers, building their own private racetracks in the city for the purpose; Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, better known as Caligula, built his own on the Vatican Hill, which stood roughly where St Peter&#8217;s now stands.<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_975\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-975\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-medium wp-image-975\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-300x234.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"234\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-300x234.jpg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-65x51.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-225x175.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus-350x273.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_Circus.jpg 706w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-975\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Caligula&#8217;s Circus was also known as the Circus of Nero<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Caligula also gave many games in the Circus which lasted from early morning until evening; at one time he\u2019d introduce between the races a baiting of panthers and now the manoeuvres of the game called Troy;<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This, the lusus Troaia, was a complicated set of equestrian manouvers by aristocratic youths. It usually took place on the Campus Martius and sometimes resulted in major injuries.\u00a0\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-160-1\" href=\"#footnote-160-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> some, too, of remarkable splendour, in which the Circus race floor was strewn with red and green,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"To match the colours of the Red and Green teams respectively.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-2\" href=\"#footnote-160-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> while the charioteers were all senators. He also started some games at random, such as when a few people called for them from the neighbouring balconies,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Referring to the buildings surrounding the Circus Maximus.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-3\" href=\"#footnote-160-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> as he was inspecting the outfit of the Circus from the Gelotian house.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Located on the Palatine Hill. It was originally a private house owned by a wealthy freedman of Augustus, called Gelos, but was incorporated into the imperial palace at some point.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-4\" href=\"#footnote-160-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#Suetonius\">Suetonius<\/a>, <em>Caligula <\/em>18.3<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_980\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-980\" style=\"width: 411px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-980\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-300x236.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"411\" height=\"323\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-300x236.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-1024x805.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-768x604.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-65x51.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-225x177.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero-350x275.png 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2019\/10\/Circus_of_Nero.png 1252w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 411px) 100vw, 411px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-980\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">This shows the circus overlaid on the current plan of St Peter&#8217;s. This was outside the walls of Rome, although it was only the other side of the Tiber. Image from Wikimedia Commons, by <span class=\"mw-mmv-source-author\"><span class=\"mw-mmv-author mw-mmv-source\">Jos\u00e9 Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro<\/span><\/span>.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Caligula&#8217;s short reign was marked by his mental instability, and his treatment of people at the games was not consistently generous and kind:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>He treated the other classes<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Previous to this Suetonius had been talking about his treatment of the elites.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-5\" href=\"#footnote-160-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> with similar disdain and cruelty.\u00a0 When he was disturbed by the noise made by those who came in the middle of the night to get free seats in the Circus [Maximus], he drove them all out with clubs, and in the confusion more than twenty Roman equestrians were crushed to death, with as many matrons<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"In other words, women considered respectable by the Romans.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-6\" href=\"#footnote-160-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> and a countless number of others. At the plays in the theatre, he scattered the gift tickets ahead of time to create animosity between the plebs and the equestrians to induce the mob to steal seats reserved for equestrians.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Tickets were normally tossed out to the crowds during the course of events, a bit like t-shirts are now. Some tickets could be for huge prizes, and quite naturally if the poorer folk came in first and saw tickets on the seats kept for the elite, they would rush to sit in those sits and ignore any security trying to get them out.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-7\" href=\"#footnote-160-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Suetonius, <em>Caligula <\/em>26.4<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p><strong><em>\u00a0<\/em><\/strong>The 2nd century CE historian <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_575\">Cassius Dio<\/a> adds more detail to our picture of Caligula\u2019s enthusiasm for the games:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>This was the kind of emperor into whose hands the Romans then fell into. Hence the deeds of Tiberius,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The previous emperor, who was not well liked.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-8\" href=\"#footnote-160-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a> though they were felt to have been very harsh, were nevertheless as far superior to those of Gaius [Caligula] as the deeds of Augustus were to those of Tiberius. For Tiberius always kept power in his own hands and used others as agents for carrying out his wishes; whereas Gaius was ruled by the charioteers and gladiators, and was the slave of the actors and others connected with the stage. Indeed, he always kept Apelles, the most famous of the tragic actors of that day, with him even in public.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"\u00a0 The modern cult of celebrity makes this seem innocuous, but in Rome actors were infamis, that is they were not at all respectable company for a senator, let alone an emperor. Not that that really stopped most people. \u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-160-9\" href=\"#footnote-160-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> So he by himself and they by themselves did without any restraints all that people like that naturally dare to do when given power. \u00a0He organized and arranged everything relevant to their art in the most lavish manner at the slightest excuse, and he forced the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_100\">praetors<\/a> and the <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_106\">consuls<\/a> to do the same, so that almost every day some performance of the kind was sure to be given. At first he was but a spectator and listener at these and would take sides for or against various performers like one of the crowd; and one time, when he was annoyed with those who didn&#8217;t agree with him, he did not go to the spectacle. But as time went on, he came to imitate, and to compete in many events, driving chariots, fighting as a gladiator, giving exhibitions of <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/case-study-the-great-pantomime-riots-of-rome\/\">pantomimic dancing<\/a>, and acting in tragedy. So much for how he normally behaved. Once he sent an urgent summons at night to the leading men of the Senate, as if for some important discussion, and then danced before them.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Whenever I try and visualize this words fail me.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-10\" href=\"#footnote-160-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--sidebar textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Exercise<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>In many of the ancient discussions of Caligula&#8217;s behaviour at the games we see him publicly humiliate or harm a number of groups. Try to create a list of the different groups he humiliates and think about why he targetted them.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Yet after doing all this he later killed the best and the most famous of these slaves by poisoning. He did the same also with the horses and charioteers of the rival factions; for he was strongly attached to the Greens, which from this colour was called also the Faction of the Leek. Even to\u2011day the place where he used to practise driving the chariots is called the Gaianum after him.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Originally, an open racetrack it became a circus and was known as the Circus of Gaius or the Vatican Circus.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-11\" href=\"#footnote-160-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a> He used to invite one of the horses, which he named Incitatus, to dinner, where he would offer him golden barley and drink his health in wine from golden goblets; he swore by the animal&#8217;s life and fortune and even promised to appoint him consul, a promise that he would certainly have carried out if he had lived longer.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/back-matter\/aii-author-biographies\/#CassiusDio\">Cassius Dio<\/a>, <em>Roman History <\/em>59<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>After Caligula, came Claudius, and then Claudius&#8217; stepson Nero (of whom more can be read <a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/case-study-i-nero\/\">here<\/a>). Nero was also very fond of chariot racing, even going so far as to invent a 10 horse chariot race which he competed in at the Olympics \u2013 he fell out of the chariot and had to be popped back in; although didn\u2019t complete the race he still won. It\u2019s good to be the emperor.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>Even when Nero was very young he had a deep passion for horses and talked constantly about the games in the Circus, though he was forbidden to do so. Once when he was lamenting with his fellow pupils the fate of a charioteer of the Greens, who was dragged by his horses, and his teacher scolded him, he lied and pretended that he was talking about Hector.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The mythical Greek hero Achilles dragged Hector\u2019s body behind his chariot after he had killed him at Troy, an episode that is recounted in Homer's Odyssey, which was a text elite Romans read as part of their education.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-12\" href=\"#footnote-160-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a> When he first became emperor he used to play every day with ivory chariots on a board, and he came from the country to all the games, even the most insignificant, at first secretly and then so openly that no one doubted that he would be in Rome on days when races where held. He made no secret of his wish to have the number of prizes increased, and in consequence more races were added and the performance was continued until very late, while the managers of the factions no longer thought it worth while to produce their drivers at all except for a full day&#8217;s racing. He soon longed to drive a chariot himself and even to show himself frequently before the public. After a trial exhibition in his gardens before his slaves and the dregs of the people, he gave everyone an opportunity of seeing him in the Circus Maximus, one of his freedmen dropping the napkin from the place usually occupied by the magistrates.<\/p>\n<p>Suetonius, <em>Nero <\/em>21<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>After Nero took his show on the road, touring Greece, and competing at various games there (always victoriously, of course), he gave a show in Naples.<\/p>\n<blockquote>\n<figure id=\"attachment_983\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-983\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-983\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"400\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-65x87.jpg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-350x467.jpg 350w, https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Nero_1-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-983\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bust of Nero<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Returning from Greece, since it was at Naples that he had made his first appearance, he entered that city with white horses through a part of the wall which had been knocked down, as is customary with victors in the sacred games.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"All Greek games \u2013 the Olympics, the Pythian, the Nemean, and so forth \u2013 were held in honour of different gods, hence they were called sacred.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-13\" href=\"#footnote-160-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> In the same way he entered Antium, then Albanum, and finally Rome; but at Rome he rode in the chariot which Augustus had used in his triumphs in the past, and wore a purple robe and a Greek cloak adorned with stars of gold, bearing on his head the Olympic crown and in his right hand the Pythian one, while the other crowns were carried before him with inscriptions telling where he had won them and against what competitors, and giving the titles of the songs or of the subject of the plays.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Some Greek games, like the Pythian, included artistic competitions, which Nero competed in. In others which did not have this component, like the Olympics, he just added them in. And he rearranged the entire circuit of the games so that all the major games were held in the same year so he could win them all in one go. Again, it is good to be the emperor.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-14\" href=\"#footnote-160-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> His chariot was followed by his supporters as by the escort of a triumphal procession, who shouted that they were the attendants of Augustus and the soldiers of his triumph. Then from through the arch of the Circus Maximus, which had been knocked down, he made his way across the Velabrum and the Forum to the Palatine and the temple of Apollo. All along the route sacrificial victims were killed, the streets were sprinkled from time to time with perfume, while birds,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"People released birds as he went through town, like they sometimes do at weddings now. They did not throw birds at him as he went by.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-15\" href=\"#footnote-160-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> ribbons, and sweets were showered upon him. He placed the sacred crowns in his bedrooms around the couches, as well as statues representing him as a lyre-player, and he had a coin struck showing the same design.<\/p>\n<p>Suetonius, <em>Nero <\/em>25.1-2<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>Nero committed suicide in 68 CE, and that ended the Julio-Claudian dynasty. After a period of chaos and civil wars, the Flavian dynasty under Vespasian ruled Rome. \u00a0<a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_624\">Titus<\/a>, the second emperor of the\u00a0 dynasty, had also an interest in the races, but did not indulge it publicly to such a degree.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>He was brought up at court in company with Britannicus<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Emperor Claudius\u2019 son, poisoned by Nero at a dinner party.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-16\" href=\"#footnote-160-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> and taught the same subjects by the same teachers. At that time, so they say, a <a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_548\">physiognomist<\/a> was brought in by Narcissus, Claudius\u2019 freedman, to examine Britannicus and declared most positively that he would never become emperor; but that Titus, who was standing nearby at the time, would surely rule. The boys were so friendly that it is believed that when Britannicus drained the fatal drink, Titus, who was reclining at his side, also tasted the potion and for a long time suffered from a lingering illness. Titus did not forget any of this and later set up a golden statue of his friend in the Palace, and dedicated another equestrian statue of ivory, which is to this day carried in the procession in the Circus, and he attended it on its first appearance.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"It is entirely possible that all of this is true. It is also true that commemorating his friendship with Britannicus was politically very convenient after Nero's death and disgrace.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-17\" href=\"#footnote-160-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Suetonius, <em>Titus <\/em>2<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_160_622\">Domitian<\/a>, Titus\u2019 younger brother and successor (and also the final Flavian emperor), also enjoyed the chariot races and expanded their number by dropping the number of laps in a race:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>He also celebrated Secular games,<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The Ludi Saeculares were celebrated by Augustus in 15 BCE; as they were supposed to be held only every 110 years so the next time they should have been held would have been 94\/5 CE. However, Claudius said that Augustus had wrongly calculated and held them during his reign. Domitian insisted Augustus had been right and so held the games according to the schedule set up by Augustus. Basically these games were extra special and being able to throw them for the people would bring great popularity.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-18\" href=\"#footnote-160-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a> calculating the time, not according to the year when Claudius had last given them, but by the previous calculation of Augustus. In the course of these he reduced the number of laps from seven to five to make it possible to finish a hundred races on the day of contests in the Circus.<\/p>\n<p>Suetonius,<em> Domitian <\/em>4.3<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<p>He also added two new, short-lived factions:<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>He also made many innovations in common customs. He did away with the distribution of food to the people and revived the custom of formal dinners.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"That is, instead of giving them food that they might have to go away and cook themselves, he set up mass dinners for the people where it was served cooked to them. (Many Romans did not have access to cooking faciilties in their residences, so they would have to take meat to be cooked somewhere.)\" id=\"return-footnote-160-19\" href=\"#footnote-160-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> He added two factions of drivers in the Circus, with gold and purple as their colours, to the four former ones.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"These new factions appear to have been very short-lived.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-20\" href=\"#footnote-160-20\" aria-label=\"Footnote 20\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[20]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Suetonius,<em> Domitian <\/em>7.1<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<style type=\"text\/css\">\n\t\t\t#gallery-1 {\n\t\t\t\tmargin: auto;\n\t\t\t}\n\t\t\t#gallery-1 .gallery-item {\n\t\t\t\tfloat: left;\n\t\t\t\tmargin-top: 10px;\n\t\t\t\ttext-align: center;\n\t\t\t\twidth: 33%;\n\t\t\t}\n\t\t\t#gallery-1 img {\n\t\t\t\tborder: 2px solid #cfcfcf;\n\t\t\t}\n\t\t\t#gallery-1 .gallery-caption {\n\t\t\t\tmargin-left: 0;\n\t\t\t}\n\t\t\t\/* see gallery_shortcode() in wp-includes\/media.php *\/\n\t\t<\/style>\n<div id='gallery-1' class='gallery galleryid-160 gallery-columns-3 gallery-size-thumbnail'>\n<dl class='gallery-item'>\n<dt class='gallery-icon landscape'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Hippodrome_of_Domitian_-_panoramio_1-scaled.jpg'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Hippodrome_of_Domitian_-_panoramio_1-150x150.jpg\" class=\"attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail\" alt=\"\" aria-describedby=\"gallery-1-815\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/dt>\n<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-815'>\n\t\t\t\tHippodrome of Domitian\n\t\t\t\t<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl class='gallery-item'>\n<dt class='gallery-icon portrait'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Parione_-_Stadio_di_Domiziano_1120141-scaled.jpg'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Parione_-_Stadio_di_Domiziano_1120141-150x150.jpg\" class=\"attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail\" alt=\"\" aria-describedby=\"gallery-1-810\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/dt>\n<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-810'>\n\t\t\t\tStadium of Domitian (Rome)\n\t\t\t\t<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl class='gallery-item'>\n<dt class='gallery-icon landscape'>\n\t\t\t\t<a href='https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Stadion_Domitian_Nord-scaled.jpg'><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/848\/2020\/06\/Stadion_Domitian_Nord-150x150.jpg\" class=\"attachment-thumbnail size-thumbnail\" alt=\"\" aria-describedby=\"gallery-1-809\" \/><\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/dt>\n<dd class='wp-caption-text gallery-caption' id='gallery-1-809'>\n\t\t\t\tFull-scale reconstruction model (1: 100) of the Stadium of the Domitian (north side).\n\t\t\t\t<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<p><br style=\"clear: both\" \/>\n\t\t<\/div>\n<p>Emperors and dynasties came and went, with all emperors understanding the importance of giving the people different types of spectacles, and especially chariot racing. This not only entertained people but allowed food and (sometimes) money to be distributed, but also gave emperors an unparalleled opportunity to address the people of Rome en masse.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"With no PA system available, information could also be relayed by cards or announcers.\" id=\"return-footnote-160-21\" href=\"#footnote-160-21\" aria-label=\"Footnote 21\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[21]<\/sup><\/a>. Caracalla was emperor of Rome from 198-217; he was supposed to rule with his brother Geta. He had him killed instead, which was efficient, although not an action calculated to improve family feeling. He is probably best known now as the emperor who extended Roman citizenship to all the free born men in the Roman Empire, which helped him raise the tax to build his <a href=\"https:\/\/www.livius.org\/articles\/place\/rome\/rome-photos\/rome-baths-of-caracalla\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">baths<\/a> (still standing in part) in Rome. He was also immensely fond of chariot racing.<\/p>\n<blockquote><p>After this<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"The death of Septimius Severus in 211; Severus took power after the assassination of Commodus. Caracalla ruled until 217; the Severan dynasty ruled (with interruptions) until 235).\u00a0\" id=\"return-footnote-160-22\" href=\"#footnote-160-22\" aria-label=\"Footnote 22\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[22]<\/sup><\/a> Antoninus [Caracalla] ruled alone; nominally, it is true, he shared it with his brother, but in reality he ruled alone from the first days. He drew up treaties with the enemy, withdrew from their territory, and abandoned the forts; as for his own people, he dismissed some, including Papinian, the prefect, and killed others, among them Euodus his tutor, Castor, and his wife Plautilla, and her brother Plautius.\u00a0Even in Rome itself he killed a man who was renowned for no other reason than his profession, which made him very conspicuous. I\u00a0refer to Euprepes the charioteer. He killed him because he supported the opposite faction to the one he himself favoured. So Euprepes was put to death in his old age, after having won the crown in a vast number of races; for he had won seven hundred and eighty-two races, a record equalled by no one else.<\/p>\n<p>The emperor [Caracalla] himself kept spending the money upon the army, as we have said, and upon wild beasts and horses; for he was for ever killing vast numbers of animals, both wild and domesticated, forcing us to supply most of them, though he did buy a few. One day he killed a hundred boars at one time with his own hands. He also used to drive chariots, wearing the Blue costume. In everything he was very hot-headed and very erratic, and he furthermore possessed the craftiness of his mother and the Syrians, to which race she belonged. He would appoint some freedman or other wealthy person to be director of the games in order that the man might spend money in this way also; and he would salute the spectators with his whip from the arena below and beg for gold pieces like a performer of the lowest class. He claimed that he used the Sun god&#8217;s method in driving, and prided himself upon it. To such an extent was the entire world, so far as it owned his sway, devastated throughout his whole reign, that on one occasion the Romans at a horse-race shouted in unison this, among other things: &#8220;We shall do the living to death, that we may bury the dead.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>Cassius Dio, <em>Epitome of Roman History <\/em>78<\/p><\/blockquote>\n<hr \/>\n<p style=\"text-align: center\"><em>See also <a href=\"http:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/chapter\/imperial-sponsorship-of-the-games\/\">the section on emperors and the games.<\/a><\/em><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"media-attributions clear\" prefix:cc=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/ns#\" prefix:dc=\"http:\/\/purl.org\/dc\/terms\/\"><h2>Media Attributions<\/h2><ul><li about=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nero_Circus.jpg\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nero_Circus.jpg\" property=\"dc:title\">Nero Circus<\/a>  &copy;  Pietro Santi Bartoli    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a> license<\/li><li >Circus_of_Nero  &copy;  Jos\u00e9 Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro     <\/li><li about=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nero_1.JPG\"><a rel=\"cc:attributionURL\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Nero_1.JPG\" property=\"dc:title\">Nero<\/a>  &copy;  Photo by cjh1452000    is licensed under a  <a rel=\"license\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-SA (Attribution ShareAlike)<\/a> license<\/li><\/ul><\/div><hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-160-1\">This, the <em>lusus Troaia, <\/em>was a complicated set of equestrian manouvers by aristocratic youths. It usually took place on the Campus Martius and sometimes resulted in major injuries.\u00a0\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-2\"> To match the colours of the Red and Green teams respectively. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-3\">Referring to the buildings surrounding the Circus Maximus. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-4\">Located on the Palatine Hill. It was originally a private house owned by a wealthy freedman of Augustus, called Gelos, but was incorporated into the imperial palace at some point. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-5\">Previous to this Suetonius had been talking about his treatment of the elites. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-6\">In other words, women considered respectable by the Romans. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-7\">Tickets were normally tossed out to the crowds during the course of events, a bit like t-shirts are now. Some tickets could be for huge prizes, and quite naturally if the poorer folk came in first and saw tickets on the seats kept for the elite, they would rush to sit in those sits and ignore any security trying to get them out. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-8\">The previous emperor, who was not well liked. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-9\">\u00a0 The modern cult of celebrity makes this seem innocuous, but in Rome actors were<em> infamis, <\/em>that is they were not at all respectable company for a senator, let alone an emperor. Not that that really stopped most people. \u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-10\">Whenever I try and visualize this words fail me. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-11\"> Originally, an open racetrack it became a circus and was known as the Circus of Gaius or the Vatican Circus. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-12\"> The mythical Greek hero Achilles dragged Hector\u2019s body behind his chariot after he had killed him at Troy, an episode that is recounted in Homer's <em>Odyssey, <\/em>which was a text elite Romans read as part of their education. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-13\">All Greek games \u2013 the Olympics, the Pythian, the Nemean, and so forth \u2013 were held in honour of different gods, hence they were called sacred. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-14\">Some Greek games, like the Pythian, included artistic competitions, which Nero competed in. In others which did not have this component, like the Olympics, he just added them in. And he rearranged the entire circuit of the games so that all the major games were held in the same year so he could win them all in one go. Again, it is good to be the emperor. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-15\">People released birds as he went through town, like they sometimes do at weddings now. They did not throw birds at him as he went by. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-16\">The Emperor Claudius\u2019 son, poisoned by Nero at a dinner party. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-17\">It is entirely possible that all of this is true. It is also true that commemorating his friendship with Britannicus was politically very convenient after Nero's death and disgrace. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-18\">The <em>Ludi Saeculares <\/em>were celebrated by Augustus in 15 BCE; as they were supposed to be held only every 110 years so the next time they should have been held would have been 94\/5 CE. However, Claudius said that Augustus had wrongly calculated and held them during his reign. Domitian insisted Augustus had been right and so held the games according to the schedule set up by Augustus. Basically these games were extra special and being able to throw them for the people would bring great popularity. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-19\">That is, instead of giving them food that they might have to go away and cook themselves, he set up mass dinners for the people where it was served cooked to them. (Many Romans did not have access to cooking faciilties in their residences, so they would have to take meat to be cooked somewhere.) <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-20\">These new factions appear to have been very short-lived. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-20\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 20\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-21\">With no PA system available, information could also be relayed by cards or announcers. <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-21\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 21\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-160-22\">The death of Septimius Severus in 211; Severus took power after the assassination of Commodus. Caracalla ruled until 217; the Severan dynasty ruled (with interruptions) until 235).\u00a0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-160-22\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 22\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div><div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_160_575\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_575\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A consul and a historian, he wrote in Greek. He wrote a 60 book history of Rome from the landing of Aeneas in Italy until 229 CE. Some of the history is extant in its original form, some of it only exists in epitomes or summaries by a range of later authors. His name is sometimes written Dio Cassius.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_160_100\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_100\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The second most senior position in the cursus honorum, there was originally only one, but the number expanded to 8 and then 16 as the needs of the administration demanded more and more magistrates.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_160_106\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_106\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The chief military and civilian commander of Rome. Two were elected each year and competition to become consul was incredibly intense as it represented the apex of a political career. After their term in office consuls could go on to be governors of provinces, where, under the Republic, they were wont to rob the provincials blind in order to recoup the costs of their political campaigns.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_160_624\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_624\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus was the second of the emperors of the Flavian dynasty. He was a noted general, aiding and eventually taking over from his father in the First Jewish War (66-73 CE), which saw the siege and destruction of Jerusalem and the enslavement of most of its remaining population. Although he only ruled from 79-81 CE he is remembered in historical record as an example of a good, manly emperor and Roman, unlike his brother and successor Domitian. He is, however, also remembered with less fondness for his love affair with the Jewish queen Berenice, whom he brought to Rome in 75 with the plan of marrying. He was forced to give up the relationship under pressure from the Roman Senate and people.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_160_548\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_548\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Someone who tells someone's character and (sometimes) future from their physical features. <\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_160_622\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_160_622\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>The third and last of the emperors of the Flavian Dynasty, Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus, he ruled from 81-91. He was assassinated by the Senate and is remembered in the historical record as an example of imperial cruelty and viciousness.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":801,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-160","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":38,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/160","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/801"}],"version-history":[{"count":22,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/160\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1105,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/160\/revisions\/1105"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/38"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/160\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=160"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=160"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=160"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/spectaclesintheromanworldsourcebook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=160"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}