![\"circular](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/technicalwriting\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/296\/2018\/05\/Tuckman_CC-1024x981.png\")
\r\nFigure 4.2.1<\/strong> The Stages of the Tuckman Model.<\/em> [footnote]eCampus Ontario. \u201cTuckman\u2019s Linear Model of group\u00a0<\/span>development<\/span>\u201d,\u00a0in Communication for Business Professionals - Canadian Edition<\/em> [Online]. eCampus Ontario, 2018. Available:\u00a0https:\/\/ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub\/commbusprofcdn\/<\/a>. CC-BY-SA<\/a>.\u00a0\u00a0[\/footnote]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\nNote that at each stage, communication is a critical component of successfully moving to the next stage. The forming<\/strong> stage, when everyone is getting to know each other and are trying to make a good impression, is a good time to create a set of shared expectations, guidelines, or a Team Charter. A team forming activity is also a good idea to help build trust and get to know the various strengths and weaknesses of the team members. This is an orientation stage, on both an interpersonal and professional level, where preliminary boundaries and expectations are established.\r\n\r\nThe storming<\/strong> stage is the one most often characterized by group conflict. It is often where the preliminary expectations and boundaries are challenged as individuals learn more about each other's motivations. This coincides with the \"brainstorming\" stage of the design process, in which each member contributes ideas that could potentially become the focus of the project. It is also the stage where team mates learn about each others' strengths and weaknesses, and try to determine what their roles will be in the project. Learning to harness the constructive potential of conflict and compromise in this stage is important to progressing to the next stage.\r\n\r\nDuring the norming<\/strong> stage, if conflicts have been resolved and team mates have proved flexible, all is going well, each team member knows their role and works on their part of the project. Sometimes, people work independently in this stage, but check in with team mates frequently to make sure work flow is efficient and effective. Group cohesion ensures that everyone is responsible to the task and to each other; Gantt Charts can be very helpful in keeping everyone on track during this stage. Problems might arise at this stage if teammates do not fully understand their role, the team expectations, or the overall goal; revisiting the forming or storming stage may be required.\r\n\r\nFew first-time teams reach the performing<\/strong> stage, as this happens when teams have worked together well on several projects, have established a synergy, and have developed systems that that make projects go smoothly and efficiently. Less time is needed to form, storm and learn to norm; performing teams can move quickly and interdependently to tackling the task at hand. Adjourning<\/strong> and going their separate ways can often be somewhat emotional for these teams. Figure 4.2.2<\/strong>[footnote]Dlogo Nicoleti. \u201cModelo de Tuckman.png\u201d, Wikimedia Commons<\/em>, https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Modelo_de_Tuckman.png<\/a>\u00a0.\u00a0CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>\u00a0.[\/footnote] depicts the trajectory of each team member during each stage.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1656\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]![https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Modelo_de_Tuckman.png<\/a>\u00a0.\u00a0](\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Modelo_de_Tuckman.png\"){kind=link}
![\"Forming:](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/technicalwriting\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/296\/2018\/05\/Screen-Shot-2018-11-24-at-1.40.42-PM-1024x247.png\" "\\"DIogo")
Figure 4.2.2<\/strong> Trajectory of team mates during each stage of the Tuckman team formation model.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nDISC Model\r\n<\/strong><\/h1>\r\nDISC theory, developed in 1928 by Dr. William Moulton Marston (who also, as it happens, created the Wonder Woman<\/em> comic series!), has evolved into a useful model for conflict management as it predicts behaviours based on four key personality traits he originally described as Dominance, Inducement, Submission, and Compliance.[footnote]W. M. Marsten, Emotions of Normal People<\/em>. Keegan Paul Trench Trubner and Co. Ltd., 1928; republished London: Routledge, 2002 [\/footnote] The names of these four traits have been variously revised by others over the decades, so you might find different terms used in different contexts. The four general traits are now often described as (1) Dominance, (2) Influence\/Inspiring (3) Steadiness\/Supportive, and (4) Compliance\/Conscientiousness (see Figure 4.2.3<\/strong>).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3227\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]![\"Circle](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/technicalwriting\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/296\/2018\/05\/DISC-image-Fig-4.2.3-1024x682.png\")
<\/a> Figure 4.2.3<\/strong> DISC Profile<\/em>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIndustries often use DISC assessments in professional contexts. Having some insight into your teammates\u2019 personality traits can help when trying to resolve conflicts. General characteristics of each trait are as follows:\r\n\r\n \t- Dominance <\/strong>\r\n
\r\n \t- Characteristics<\/em>: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can be argumentative, disrespectful of authority, and overly ambitious (taking on too much); can be blunt, stubborn, and aggressive<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
\r\n \t- Inspiring\/Influential<\/strong>\r\n
\r\n \t- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: more concerned with popularity than tangible results; lacks attention to detail<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
\r\n \t- Steady\/Supportive<\/strong>\r\n
\r\n \t- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: resistant to change; sensitive to criticism; difficulty prioritizing<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
\r\n \t- Cautious\/Conscientious\/Compliant<\/strong>\r\n
\r\n \t- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can get bogged down in details; needs clear boundaries, procedures, and methods; difficulty accepting criticism; may avoid conflict or just \u201cgive in.\u201d May be overly timid.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
GRIP Model<\/h1>\r\nRichard Beckhard's GRPI model,[footnote]R. Beckhard, (1972). \u201cOptimizing team building efforts,\u201d Journal of Contemporary Business<\/em>, 1972, pp. 23\u201327.[\/footnote] originally developed in 1972, has been widely adapted in sports contexts as the GRIP<\/strong> model (see Figure 4.2.4<\/strong>), outlining four interrelated components of highly effective teamwork:\r\n\r\n \t- Goals<\/strong>: everyone must fully understand and be committed to the goals of the team, and of the organization. Everyone\u2019s goals must be aligned in order to establish trust, make progress, and achieve desired outcome.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Interpersonal<\/strong>: quality communication and collaboration require and foster trust among team members; sensitivity and flexibility needed to deal with conflict and make progress.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Processes<\/strong>: defined system for how decisions are made, how the team solves problems and addresses conflict; defines work flow and procedures to be followed in completing the project.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1944\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]
![\"A](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/technicalwriting\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/296\/2018\/05\/GRIP-Model-1.png\")
Figure 4.2.4<\/strong> GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nThomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model<\/h1>\r\nThomas and Kilmann\u2019s model[footnote]K. W. Thomas & R. H. Kilmann, \u201cThomas\u2013Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument,\u201d Tuxedo NY: Xicom, 1974.[\/footnote] for handling team conflict outlines five main approaches to managing team conflict (Competing, Accommodating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Collaborating<\/em>), placed in a matrix of two scales: Assertiveness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>the degree to which one tries to meet one\u2019s own needs; and Cooperativeness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>degree to which one tries to satisfy the needs of other team members (See illustration<\/strong><\/a>).\r\n\r\nEach approach can have both positive and negative impacts:\r\n\r\n \t- Competing:<\/strong>\u00a0 highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to \u201cwin at all costs,\u201d dominate, and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity, but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting innovations if well managed.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compromising<\/strong>:\u00a0 this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results. Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single inspirational source.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoiding<\/strong>:\u00a0 being unassertive and uncooperative is generally the least effective way to deal conflict, as this simply avoids the problem and neglects the need for a solution. However, when a feasible solution to a problem seems impossible, sometimes ignoring it and focusing on what is good can be the best way to just get through it.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Collaborating<\/strong>:\u00a0 being highly assertive and cooperative is the best way to find solutions that benefit the whole team and build respect.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n
Lencioni Model<\/h1>\r\nIn his 2005 book, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, <\/em>Lencioni[footnote]P. Lencioni, Five Dysfunctions of a Team<\/em>, New York, NY:\u00a0 John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2002.[\/footnote] outlines five common problems teams experience that impact their effectiveness:\r\n\r\n \t- Lack of trust<\/strong>:\u00a0 if team members do not trust each other, they are unlikely to take risks or ask for help. A lack of trust means a low level of comfort that makes it difficult to communicate and perform effectively as a team<\/li>\r\n \t
- Fear of conflict<\/strong>:\u00a0 avoiding conflict can lead to an artificial \u201cpeace\u201d at the expense of progress and innovation. Conflict is a normal part of team work and can be very productive if managed effectively.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Lack of commitment<\/strong>:\u00a0 team members do not commit to doing the work, do not follow through on decisions or tasks, do not meet deadlines, and let their teammates down, ultimately affecting the success of the whole project.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoidance of accountability<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Inattention to results<\/strong>:\u00a0 when team members focus on their own personal goals instead of project goals, they lose sight of the expected results that actually measure the success of the project. Not focusing on the results during the process means that no one is planning how to improve those results.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1653\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]
![\"A](\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/technicalwriting\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/296\/2018\/05\/LENCIONI-MODEL-1024x690.png\")
Figure 4.2.5<\/strong>\u00a0Lencioni Model: Five Dysfunctions of a Team<\/em>[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nLencioni advises tackling each dysfunction, displayed in the pyramid in Figure 4.2.5<\/strong>, from the bottom up. Establishing trust is a crucial first step to being able to manage conflict, achieve commitment, create accountability and focus on results.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\nEXERCISE 4.2 Apply these models to your experience<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n
\r\n\r\nApply one or more of these models to your past or current experience of teamwork:\r\n\r\n \t- Have you engaged in the Tuckman team formation steps?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Can you determine which of the DISC characteristics most closely matches your personality traits?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Have you experienced a team project where misaligned goals or unclear roles had a negative impact?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Do you think learning about the conflict modes or typical dysfunctions can help make your future team experiences more productive?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Could you propose an alternative model for effective teamwork?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
An important aspect of effective teamwork entails understanding group dynamics in terms of both team situation and individual temperament. This section reviews a variety models often applied in workplaces that can help a team perform optimally and manage crises effectively.<\/p>\n
The Tuckman Team Model<\/h1>\n
“Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development,” proposed by psychologist Bruce Tuckman in 1965,[1]<\/sup><\/a> is one of the most famous theories of team development. It describes four stages that teams may progress through: forming, storming, norming<\/strong>, and performing<\/strong> (a 5th stage was added later:\u00a0 adjourning<\/strong>).\u00a0 According to McCahan et al<\/em>., the stages move from organizing to producing, and although the stages appear linear, in fact teams may move backwards to previous stages, depending on events that may influence the team and the communications strategies that they use. Some teams can also stall in a stage and never fully realize their potential. Figure 4.2.1<\/strong> outlines these stages. Please refer to the McCahan et al<\/em>. text[2]<\/sup><\/a> for a more complete discussion.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 4.2.1<\/strong> The Stages of the Tuckman Model.<\/em> [3]<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nNote that at each stage, communication is a critical component of successfully moving to the next stage. The forming<\/strong> stage, when everyone is getting to know each other and are trying to make a good impression, is a good time to create a set of shared expectations, guidelines, or a Team Charter. A team forming activity is also a good idea to help build trust and get to know the various strengths and weaknesses of the team members. This is an orientation stage, on both an interpersonal and professional level, where preliminary boundaries and expectations are established.<\/p>\nThe storming<\/strong> stage is the one most often characterized by group conflict. It is often where the preliminary expectations and boundaries are challenged as individuals learn more about each other’s motivations. This coincides with the “brainstorming” stage of the design process, in which each member contributes ideas that could potentially become the focus of the project. It is also the stage where team mates learn about each others’ strengths and weaknesses, and try to determine what their roles will be in the project. Learning to harness the constructive potential of conflict and compromise in this stage is important to progressing to the next stage.<\/p>\nDuring the norming<\/strong> stage, if conflicts have been resolved and team mates have proved flexible, all is going well, each team member knows their role and works on their part of the project. Sometimes, people work independently in this stage, but check in with team mates frequently to make sure work flow is efficient and effective. Group cohesion ensures that everyone is responsible to the task and to each other; Gantt Charts can be very helpful in keeping everyone on track during this stage. Problems might arise at this stage if teammates do not fully understand their role, the team expectations, or the overall goal; revisiting the forming or storming stage may be required.<\/p>\nFew first-time teams reach the performing<\/strong> stage, as this happens when teams have worked together well on several projects, have established a synergy, and have developed systems that that make projects go smoothly and efficiently. Less time is needed to form, storm and learn to norm; performing teams can move quickly and interdependently to tackling the task at hand. Adjourning<\/strong> and going their separate ways can often be somewhat emotional for these teams. Figure 4.2.2<\/strong>[4]<\/sup><\/a> depicts the trajectory of each team member during each stage.<\/p>\nFigure 4.2.2<\/strong> Trajectory of team mates during each stage of the Tuckman team formation model.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nDISC Model
\n<\/strong><\/h1>\nDISC theory, developed in 1928 by Dr. William Moulton Marston (who also, as it happens, created the Wonder Woman<\/em> comic series!), has evolved into a useful model for conflict management as it predicts behaviours based on four key personality traits he originally described as Dominance, Inducement, Submission, and Compliance.[5]<\/sup><\/a> The names of these four traits have been variously revised by others over the decades, so you might find different terms used in different contexts. The four general traits are now often described as (1) Dominance, (2) Influence\/Inspiring (3) Steadiness\/Supportive, and (4) Compliance\/Conscientiousness (see Figure 4.2.3<\/strong>).<\/p>\n<\/a>Figure 4.2.3<\/strong> DISC Profile<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nIndustries often use DISC assessments in professional contexts. Having some insight into your teammates\u2019 personality traits can help when trying to resolve conflicts. General characteristics of each trait are as follows:<\/p>\n
\n- Dominance <\/strong>\n
\n- Characteristics<\/em>: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can be argumentative, disrespectful of authority, and overly ambitious (taking on too much); can be blunt, stubborn, and aggressive<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- Inspiring\/Influential<\/strong>\n
\n- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: more concerned with popularity than tangible results; lacks attention to detail<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- Steady\/Supportive<\/strong>\n
\n- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: resistant to change; sensitive to criticism; difficulty prioritizing<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
\n- Cautious\/Conscientious\/Compliant<\/strong>\n
\n- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can get bogged down in details; needs clear boundaries, procedures, and methods; difficulty accepting criticism; may avoid conflict or just \u201cgive in.\u201d May be overly timid.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
GRIP Model<\/h1>\n
Richard Beckhard’s GRPI model,[6]<\/sup><\/a> originally developed in 1972, has been widely adapted in sports contexts as the GRIP<\/strong> model (see Figure 4.2.4<\/strong>), outlining four interrelated components of highly effective teamwork:<\/p>\n\n- Goals<\/strong>: everyone must fully understand and be committed to the goals of the team, and of the organization. Everyone\u2019s goals must be aligned in order to establish trust, make progress, and achieve desired outcome.<\/li>\n
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\n
- Interpersonal<\/strong>: quality communication and collaboration require and foster trust among team members; sensitivity and flexibility needed to deal with conflict and make progress.<\/li>\n
- Processes<\/strong>: defined system for how decisions are made, how the team solves problems and addresses conflict; defines work flow and procedures to be followed in completing the project.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Figure 4.2.4<\/strong> GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nThomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model<\/h1>\n
Thomas and Kilmann\u2019s model[7]<\/sup><\/a> for handling team conflict outlines five main approaches to managing team conflict (Competing, Accommodating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Collaborating<\/em>), placed in a matrix of two scales: Assertiveness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>the degree to which one tries to meet one\u2019s own needs; and Cooperativeness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>degree to which one tries to satisfy the needs of other team members (See illustration<\/strong><\/a>).<\/p>\nEach approach can have both positive and negative impacts:<\/p>\n
\n- Competing:<\/strong>\u00a0 highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to \u201cwin at all costs,\u201d dominate, and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity, but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting innovations if well managed.<\/li>\n
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\n
- Compromising<\/strong>:\u00a0 this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results. Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single inspirational source.<\/li>\n
- \r\n \t
- Characteristics<\/em>: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can be argumentative, disrespectful of authority, and overly ambitious (taking on too much); can be blunt, stubborn, and aggressive<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Inspiring\/Influential<\/strong>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: more concerned with popularity than tangible results; lacks attention to detail<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Steady\/Supportive<\/strong>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: resistant to change; sensitive to criticism; difficulty prioritizing<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Cautious\/Conscientious\/Compliant<\/strong>\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\r\n \t
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can get bogged down in details; needs clear boundaries, procedures, and methods; difficulty accepting criticism; may avoid conflict or just \u201cgive in.\u201d May be overly timid.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n
GRIP Model<\/h1>\r\nRichard Beckhard's GRPI model,[footnote]R. Beckhard, (1972). \u201cOptimizing team building efforts,\u201d Journal of Contemporary Business<\/em>, 1972, pp. 23\u201327.[\/footnote] originally developed in 1972, has been widely adapted in sports contexts as the GRIP<\/strong> model (see Figure 4.2.4<\/strong>), outlining four interrelated components of highly effective teamwork:\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Goals<\/strong>: everyone must fully understand and be committed to the goals of the team, and of the organization. Everyone\u2019s goals must be aligned in order to establish trust, make progress, and achieve desired outcome.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Interpersonal<\/strong>: quality communication and collaboration require and foster trust among team members; sensitivity and flexibility needed to deal with conflict and make progress.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Processes<\/strong>: defined system for how decisions are made, how the team solves problems and addresses conflict; defines work flow and procedures to be followed in completing the project.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1944\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"700\"]
Figure 4.2.4<\/strong> GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics.<\/em>[\/caption]\r\nThomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model<\/h1>\r\nThomas and Kilmann\u2019s model[footnote]K. W. Thomas & R. H. Kilmann, \u201cThomas\u2013Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument,\u201d Tuxedo NY: Xicom, 1974.[\/footnote] for handling team conflict outlines five main approaches to managing team conflict (Competing, Accommodating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Collaborating<\/em>), placed in a matrix of two scales: Assertiveness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>the degree to which one tries to meet one\u2019s own needs; and Cooperativeness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>degree to which one tries to satisfy the needs of other team members (See illustration<\/strong><\/a>).\r\n\r\nEach approach can have both positive and negative impacts:\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Competing:<\/strong>\u00a0 highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to \u201cwin at all costs,\u201d dominate, and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity, but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting innovations if well managed.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Compromising<\/strong>:\u00a0 this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results. Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single inspirational source.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoiding<\/strong>:\u00a0 being unassertive and uncooperative is generally the least effective way to deal conflict, as this simply avoids the problem and neglects the need for a solution. However, when a feasible solution to a problem seems impossible, sometimes ignoring it and focusing on what is good can be the best way to just get through it.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Collaborating<\/strong>:\u00a0 being highly assertive and cooperative is the best way to find solutions that benefit the whole team and build respect.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n
Lencioni Model<\/h1>\r\nIn his 2005 book, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, <\/em>Lencioni[footnote]P. Lencioni, Five Dysfunctions of a Team<\/em>, New York, NY:\u00a0 John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2002.[\/footnote] outlines five common problems teams experience that impact their effectiveness:\r\n
- \r\n \t
- Lack of trust<\/strong>:\u00a0 if team members do not trust each other, they are unlikely to take risks or ask for help. A lack of trust means a low level of comfort that makes it difficult to communicate and perform effectively as a team<\/li>\r\n \t
- Fear of conflict<\/strong>:\u00a0 avoiding conflict can lead to an artificial \u201cpeace\u201d at the expense of progress and innovation. Conflict is a normal part of team work and can be very productive if managed effectively.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Lack of commitment<\/strong>:\u00a0 team members do not commit to doing the work, do not follow through on decisions or tasks, do not meet deadlines, and let their teammates down, ultimately affecting the success of the whole project.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Avoidance of accountability<\/strong>.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Inattention to results<\/strong>:\u00a0 when team members focus on their own personal goals instead of project goals, they lose sight of the expected results that actually measure the success of the project. Not focusing on the results during the process means that no one is planning how to improve those results.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1653\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"1024\"]
Figure 4.2.5<\/strong>\u00a0Lencioni Model: Five Dysfunctions of a Team<\/em>[\/caption]<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nLencioni advises tackling each dysfunction, displayed in the pyramid in Figure 4.2.5<\/strong>, from the bottom up. Establishing trust is a crucial first step to being able to manage conflict, achieve commitment, create accountability and focus on results.<\/p>\r\n\r\n
\r\n EXERCISE 4.2 Apply these models to your experience<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n
\r\n\r\nApply one or more of these models to your past or current experience of teamwork:\r\n- \r\n \t
- Have you engaged in the Tuckman team formation steps?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Can you determine which of the DISC characteristics most closely matches your personality traits?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Have you experienced a team project where misaligned goals or unclear roles had a negative impact?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Do you think learning about the conflict modes or typical dysfunctions can help make your future team experiences more productive?<\/li>\r\n \t
- Could you propose an alternative model for effective teamwork?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"
An important aspect of effective teamwork entails understanding group dynamics in terms of both team situation and individual temperament. This section reviews a variety models often applied in workplaces that can help a team perform optimally and manage crises effectively.<\/p>\n
The Tuckman Team Model<\/h1>\n
“Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development,” proposed by psychologist Bruce Tuckman in 1965,[1]<\/sup><\/a> is one of the most famous theories of team development. It describes four stages that teams may progress through: forming, storming, norming<\/strong>, and performing<\/strong> (a 5th stage was added later:\u00a0 adjourning<\/strong>).\u00a0 According to McCahan et al<\/em>., the stages move from organizing to producing, and although the stages appear linear, in fact teams may move backwards to previous stages, depending on events that may influence the team and the communications strategies that they use. Some teams can also stall in a stage and never fully realize their potential. Figure 4.2.1<\/strong> outlines these stages. Please refer to the McCahan et al<\/em>. text[2]<\/sup><\/a> for a more complete discussion.<\/p>\n
\nFigure 4.2.1<\/strong> The Stages of the Tuckman Model.<\/em> [3]<\/sup><\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\nNote that at each stage, communication is a critical component of successfully moving to the next stage. The forming<\/strong> stage, when everyone is getting to know each other and are trying to make a good impression, is a good time to create a set of shared expectations, guidelines, or a Team Charter. A team forming activity is also a good idea to help build trust and get to know the various strengths and weaknesses of the team members. This is an orientation stage, on both an interpersonal and professional level, where preliminary boundaries and expectations are established.<\/p>\n
The storming<\/strong> stage is the one most often characterized by group conflict. It is often where the preliminary expectations and boundaries are challenged as individuals learn more about each other’s motivations. This coincides with the “brainstorming” stage of the design process, in which each member contributes ideas that could potentially become the focus of the project. It is also the stage where team mates learn about each others’ strengths and weaknesses, and try to determine what their roles will be in the project. Learning to harness the constructive potential of conflict and compromise in this stage is important to progressing to the next stage.<\/p>\n
During the norming<\/strong> stage, if conflicts have been resolved and team mates have proved flexible, all is going well, each team member knows their role and works on their part of the project. Sometimes, people work independently in this stage, but check in with team mates frequently to make sure work flow is efficient and effective. Group cohesion ensures that everyone is responsible to the task and to each other; Gantt Charts can be very helpful in keeping everyone on track during this stage. Problems might arise at this stage if teammates do not fully understand their role, the team expectations, or the overall goal; revisiting the forming or storming stage may be required.<\/p>\n
Few first-time teams reach the performing<\/strong> stage, as this happens when teams have worked together well on several projects, have established a synergy, and have developed systems that that make projects go smoothly and efficiently. Less time is needed to form, storm and learn to norm; performing teams can move quickly and interdependently to tackling the task at hand. Adjourning<\/strong> and going their separate ways can often be somewhat emotional for these teams. Figure 4.2.2<\/strong>[4]<\/sup><\/a> depicts the trajectory of each team member during each stage.<\/p>\n
Figure 4.2.2<\/strong> Trajectory of team mates during each stage of the Tuckman team formation model.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n DISC Model
\n<\/strong><\/h1>\nDISC theory, developed in 1928 by Dr. William Moulton Marston (who also, as it happens, created the Wonder Woman<\/em> comic series!), has evolved into a useful model for conflict management as it predicts behaviours based on four key personality traits he originally described as Dominance, Inducement, Submission, and Compliance.[5]<\/sup><\/a> The names of these four traits have been variously revised by others over the decades, so you might find different terms used in different contexts. The four general traits are now often described as (1) Dominance, (2) Influence\/Inspiring (3) Steadiness\/Supportive, and (4) Compliance\/Conscientiousness (see Figure 4.2.3<\/strong>).<\/p>\n
<\/a>Figure 4.2.3<\/strong> DISC Profile<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Industries often use DISC assessments in professional contexts. Having some insight into your teammates\u2019 personality traits can help when trying to resolve conflicts. General characteristics of each trait are as follows:<\/p>\n
- \n
- Dominance <\/strong>\n
- \n
- Characteristics<\/em>: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can be argumentative, disrespectful of authority, and overly ambitious (taking on too much); can be blunt, stubborn, and aggressive<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
- \n
- Inspiring\/Influential<\/strong>\n
- \n
- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: more concerned with popularity than tangible results; lacks attention to detail<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
- \n
- Steady\/Supportive<\/strong>\n
- \n
- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: resistant to change; sensitive to criticism; difficulty prioritizing<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
- \n
- Cautious\/Conscientious\/Compliant<\/strong>\n
- \n
- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\n
- Weaknesses<\/em>: can get bogged down in details; needs clear boundaries, procedures, and methods; difficulty accepting criticism; may avoid conflict or just \u201cgive in.\u201d May be overly timid.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
GRIP Model<\/h1>\n
Richard Beckhard’s GRPI model,[6]<\/sup><\/a> originally developed in 1972, has been widely adapted in sports contexts as the GRIP<\/strong> model (see Figure 4.2.4<\/strong>), outlining four interrelated components of highly effective teamwork:<\/p>\n
- \n
- Goals<\/strong>: everyone must fully understand and be committed to the goals of the team, and of the organization. Everyone\u2019s goals must be aligned in order to establish trust, make progress, and achieve desired outcome.<\/li>\n
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\n
- Interpersonal<\/strong>: quality communication and collaboration require and foster trust among team members; sensitivity and flexibility needed to deal with conflict and make progress.<\/li>\n
- Processes<\/strong>: defined system for how decisions are made, how the team solves problems and addresses conflict; defines work flow and procedures to be followed in completing the project.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n
Figure 4.2.4<\/strong> GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model<\/h1>\n
Thomas and Kilmann\u2019s model[7]<\/sup><\/a> for handling team conflict outlines five main approaches to managing team conflict (Competing, Accommodating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Collaborating<\/em>), placed in a matrix of two scales: Assertiveness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>the degree to which one tries to meet one\u2019s own needs; and Cooperativeness\u2014<\/em><\/strong>degree to which one tries to satisfy the needs of other team members (See illustration<\/strong><\/a>).<\/p>\n
Each approach can have both positive and negative impacts:<\/p>\n
- \n
- Competing:<\/strong>\u00a0 highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to \u201cwin at all costs,\u201d dominate, and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity, but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting innovations if well managed.<\/li>\n
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\n
- Compromising<\/strong>:\u00a0 this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results. Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single inspirational source.<\/li>\n
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\n
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\n
- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\n
- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\n
- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\n
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\n
- Characteristics<\/em>: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles<\/li>\n
- Dominance <\/strong>\n
- Fear of conflict<\/strong>:\u00a0 avoiding conflict can lead to an artificial \u201cpeace\u201d at the expense of progress and innovation. Conflict is a normal part of team work and can be very productive if managed effectively.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Accommodating<\/strong>:\u00a0 highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Roles<\/strong>: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great information gatherer\/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective<\/li>\r\n \t
- Characteristics: <\/em> has high standards; <\/em>values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Characteristics<\/em>: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real \u201cpeople person\u201d<\/li>\r\n \t
- Characteristics<\/em>: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional<\/li>\r\n \t
- Strengths<\/em>: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative<\/li>\r\n \t