{"id":1365,"date":"2017-10-27T16:32:00","date_gmt":"2017-10-27T16:32:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/chapter\/reactance-inductive-and-capacitive\/"},"modified":"2017-11-08T03:26:59","modified_gmt":"2017-11-08T03:26:59","slug":"reactance-inductive-and-capacitive","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/chapter\/reactance-inductive-and-capacitive\/","title":{"raw":"Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive","rendered":"Reactance, Inductive and Capacitive"},"content":{"raw":"\n<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Sketch voltage and current versus time in simple inductive, capacitive, and resistive circuits.<\/li>\n<li>Calculate inductive and capacitive reactance.<\/li>\n<li>Calculate current and\/or voltage in simple inductive, capacitive, and resistive circuits.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737788365\">Many circuits also contain capacitors and inductors, in addition to resistors and an AC voltage source. We have seen how capacitors and inductors respond to DC voltage when it is switched on and off. We will now explore how inductors and capacitors react to sinusoidal AC voltage.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738105248\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Inductors and Inductive Reactance<\/h1>\n<p>Suppose an inductor is connected directly to an AC voltage source, as shown in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169736696969\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>. It is reasonable to assume negligible resistance, since in practice we can make the resistance of an inductor so small that it has a negligible effect on the circuit. Also shown is a graph of voltage and current as functions of time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169736696969\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with an inductor having negligible resistance. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the inductor as functions of time.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738014869\" data-alt=\"Part a of the figure describes an A C voltage source V connected across an inductor L. The voltage across the inductance is shown as V L. Part b of the figure describes a graph showing the variation of current and voltage across the inductance as a function of time. The voltage V L and current I L is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin. The graph for voltage V is a cosine wave and an amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_01a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the figure describes an A C voltage source V connected across an inductor L. The voltage across the inductance is shown as V L. Part b of the figure describes a graph showing the variation of current and voltage across the inductance as a function of time. The voltage V L and current I L is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin. The graph for voltage V is a cosine wave and an amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\" width=\"400\"><\/span><\/p><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737804173\">The graph in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169736696969\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) starts with voltage at a maximum. Note that the current starts at zero and rises to its peak <em data-effect=\"italics\">after<\/em> the voltage that drives it, just as was the case when DC voltage was switched on in the preceding section. When the voltage becomes negative at point a, the current begins to decrease; it becomes zero at point b, where voltage is its most negative. The current then becomes negative, again following the voltage. The voltage becomes positive at point c and begins to make the current less negative. At point d, the current goes through zero just as the voltage reaches its positive peak to start another cycle. This behavior is summarized as follows:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169735571584\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in an Inductor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738084033\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductor, the voltage leads the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a<br>\n[latex]\\text{90\u00ba}[\/latex] phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738086892\">Current lags behind voltage, since inductors oppose change in current. Changing current induces a back emf [latex]V=-L\\left(\\Delta I\/\\Delta t\\right)[\/latex]. This is considered to be an effective resistance of the inductor to AC. The rms current [latex]I[\/latex] through an inductor [latex]L[\/latex] is given by a version of Ohm\u2019s law:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{L}}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738061327\">where<br>\n[latex]V[\/latex] is the rms voltage across the inductor and [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] is defined to be<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737988958\">with [latex]f[\/latex] the frequency of the AC voltage source in hertz (An analysis of the circuit using Kirchhoff\u2019s loop rule and calculus actually produces this expression). [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] is called the <span data-type=\"term\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737804525\">inductive reactance<\/span>, because the inductor reacts to impede the current. [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] has units of ohms ([latex]1 H=1 \\Omega \\cdot \\text{s}[\/latex], so that frequency times inductance has units of [latex]\\left(\\text{cycles\/s}\\right)\\left(\\Omega \\cdot \\text{s}\\right)=\\Omega [\/latex]), consistent with its role as an effective resistance. It makes sense that [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] is proportional to [latex]L[\/latex], since the greater the induction the greater its resistance to change. It is also reasonable that [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] is proportional to frequency [latex]f[\/latex], since greater frequency means greater change in current. That is, [latex]\\Delta I\/\\Delta t[\/latex] is large for large frequencies (large [latex]f[\/latex]<em data-effect=\"italics\">,<\/em> small [latex]\\Delta t[\/latex]). The greater the change, the greater the opposition of an inductor.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"example\" class=\"textbox examples\" id=\"fs-id1169736972664\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">Calculating Inductive Reactance and then Current<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738234775\">(a) Calculate the inductive reactance of a 3.00 mH inductor when 60.0 Hz and 10.0 kHz AC voltages are applied. (b) What is the rms current at each frequency if the applied rms voltage is 120 V?<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737771210\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738010624\">The inductive reactance is found directly from the expression [latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}[\/latex]. Once [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] has been found at each frequency, Ohm\u2019s law as stated in the Equation [latex]I=V\/{X}_{L}[\/latex] can be used to find the current at each frequency.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738082082\"><strong>Solution for (a)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736659051\">Entering the frequency and inductance into Equation [latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}[\/latex] gives<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}=6.28\\left(\\text{60.0}\/\\text{s}\\right)\\left(3.00 mH\\right)=\\text{1.13 \u03a9&nbsp;at&nbsp;60 Hz}.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737806696\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-126\">[latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}=6\\text{.}\\text{28}\\left(1.00\u00d7{\\text{10}}^{\\text{4}}\\text{\/s}\\right)\\left(3\\text{.}\\text{00 mH}\\right)=\\text{188 \u03a9 at 10 kHz}.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736864032\"><strong>Solution for (b)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736584158\">The rms current is now found using the version of Ohm\u2019s law in Equation [latex]I=V\/{X}_{L}[\/latex], given the applied rms voltage is 120 V. For the first frequency, this yields<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{L}}=\\frac{\\text{120 V}}{1.13 \\Omega }=\\text{106 A at 60 Hz}.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738134009\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{L}}=\\frac{\\text{120 V}}{\\text{188 \u03a9}}=0.637 A at 10 kHz.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737711680\"><strong>Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738145157\">The inductor reacts very differently at the two different frequencies. At the higher frequency, its reactance is large and the current is small, consistent with how an inductor impedes rapid change. Thus high frequencies are impeded the most. Inductors can be used to filter out high frequencies; for example, a large inductor can be put in series with a sound reproduction system or in series with your home computer to reduce high-frequency sound output from your speakers or high-frequency power spikes into your computer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737053571\">Note that although the resistance in the circuit considered is negligible, the AC current is not extremely large because inductive reactance impedes its flow. With AC, there is no time for the current to become extremely large.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738031883\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance<\/h1>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736684871\">Consider the capacitor connected directly to an AC voltage source as shown in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738082254\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>. The resistance of a circuit like this can be made so small that it has a negligible effect compared with the capacitor, and so we can assume negligible resistance. Voltage across the capacitor and current are graphed as functions of time in the figure.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738082254\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with a capacitor <em data-effect=\"italics\">C<\/em> having negligible resistance. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738087944\" data-alt=\"Part a of the figure shows a capacitor C connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage across the capacitor is given by V C. Part b of the diagram shows a graph for the variation of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time. The voltage V C and current I C is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin starting with a wave along the negative Y axis. The graph for voltage is a cosine wave and amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_02a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the figure shows a capacitor C connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage across the capacitor is given by V C. Part b of the diagram shows a graph for the variation of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time. The voltage V C and current I C is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin starting with a wave along the negative Y axis. The graph for voltage is a cosine wave and amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\" width=\"400\"><\/span><\/p><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737765333\">The graph in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738082254\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a> starts with voltage across the capacitor at a maximum. The current is zero at this point, because the capacitor is fully charged and halts the flow. Then voltage drops and the current becomes negative as the capacitor discharges. At point a, the capacitor has fully discharged (<em data-effect=\"italics\">[latex]Q=0[\/latex]<\/em> on it) and the voltage across it is zero. The current remains negative between points a and b, causing the voltage on the capacitor to reverse. This is complete at point b, where the current is zero and the voltage has its most negative value. The current becomes positive after point b, neutralizing the charge on the capacitor and bringing the voltage to zero at point c, which allows the current to reach its maximum. Between points c and d, the current drops to zero as the voltage rises to its peak, and the process starts to repeat. Throughout the cycle, the voltage follows what the current is doing by one-fourth of a cycle:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169737784517\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in a Capacitor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737796643\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage follows the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a<br>\n[latex]\\text{90\u00ba}[\/latex]<br>\n phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The capacitor is affecting the current, having the ability to stop it altogether when fully charged. Since an AC voltage is applied, there is an rms current, but it is limited by the capacitor. This is considered to be an effective resistance of the capacitor to AC, and so the rms current [latex]I[\/latex] in the circuit containing only a capacitor [latex]C[\/latex] is given by another version of Ohm\u2019s law to be<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-604\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{C}}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737917721\">where [latex]V[\/latex] is the rms voltage and [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] is defined (As with [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex], this expression for [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] results from an analysis of the circuit using Kirchhoff\u2019s rules and calculus)<sup> to be<\/sup><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]{X}_{C}=\\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736615624\">where [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] is called the <span data-type=\"term\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737819555\">capacitive reactance<\/span>, because the capacitor reacts to impede the current. [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] has units of ohms (verification left as an exercise for the reader). [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] is inversely proportional to the capacitance [latex]C[\/latex]; the larger the capacitor, the greater the charge it can store and the greater the current that can flow. It is also inversely proportional to the frequency [latex]f[\/latex]; the greater the frequency, the less time there is to fully charge the capacitor, and so it impedes current less.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"example\" class=\"textbox examples\" id=\"fs-id1169736597928\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">Calculating Capacitive Reactance and then Current<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737895572\">(a) Calculate the capacitive reactance of a 5.00 mF capacitor when 60.0 Hz and 10.0 kHz AC voltages are applied. (b) What is the rms current if the applied rms voltage is 120 V?<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737939050\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737714880\">The capacitive reactance is found directly from the expression in [latex]{X}_{C}=\\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}[\/latex]. Once<br>\n[latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<p>has been found at each frequency, Ohm\u2019s law stated as [latex]I=V\/{X}_{C}[\/latex] can be used to find the current at each frequency.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738179315\"><strong>Solution for (a)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738094747\">Entering the frequency and capacitance into [latex]{X}_{C}=\\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}[\/latex] gives<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]\\begin{array}{lll}{X}_{C}&amp; =&amp; \\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}\\\\ &amp; =&amp; \\frac{1}{6\\text{.}\\text{28}\\left(\\text{60}\\text{.}0\/\\text{s}\\right)\\left(5\\text{.}\\text{00}\\mathrm{&nbsp;\\mu }\\text{F}\\right)}=\\text{531 \u03a9&nbsp;at&nbsp;60 Hz}\\text{.}\\end{array}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738052092\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-399\">[latex]\\begin{array}{lll}{X}_{C}&amp; =&amp; \\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}=\\frac{1}{6\\text{.}\\text{28}\\left(1\\text{.}\\text{00}\u00d7{\\text{10}}^{4}\/\\text{s}\\right)\\left(5\\text{.}\\text{00}\\mathrm{&nbsp;\\mu }\\text{F}\\right)}\\\\ &amp; =&amp; \\text{3.18 \u03a9&nbsp;at&nbsp;10 kHz}\\end{array}\\text{.}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736590721\"><strong>Solution for (b)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738251850\">The rms current is now found using the version of Ohm\u2019s law in [latex]I=V\/{X}_{C}[\/latex], given the applied rms voltage is 120 V. For the first frequency, this yields<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{C}}=\\frac{\\text{120 V}}{\\text{531 \u03a9}}=\\text{0.226 A at 60 Hz}.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736894272\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{C}}=\\frac{\\text{120 V}}{\\text{3.18 \u03a9}}=37.7 A at 10 kHz.[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737827258\"><strong>Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The capacitor reacts very differently at the two different frequencies, and in exactly the opposite way an inductor reacts. At the higher frequency, its reactance is small and the current is large. Capacitors favor change, whereas inductors oppose change. Capacitors impede low frequencies the most, since low frequency allows them time to become charged and stop the current. Capacitors can be used to filter out low frequencies. For example, a capacitor in series with a sound reproduction system rids it of the 60 Hz hum.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738176743\">Although a capacitor is basically an open circuit, there is an rms current in a circuit with an AC voltage applied to a capacitor. This is because the voltage is continually reversing, charging and discharging the capacitor. If the frequency goes to zero (DC), [latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] tends to infinity, and the current is zero once the capacitor is charged. At very high frequencies, the capacitor\u2019s reactance tends to zero\u2014it has a negligible reactance and does not impede the current (it acts like a simple wire). <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Capacitors have the opposite effect on AC circuits that inductors have<\/em><\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737961091\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Resistors in an AC Circuit<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-id1169737906325\">Just as a reminder, consider <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169737758127\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>, which shows an AC voltage applied to a resistor and a graph of voltage and current versus time. The voltage and current are exactly <em data-effect=\"italics\">in <\/em><em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">phase<\/em><\/em> in a resistor. There is no frequency dependence to the behavior of plain resistance in a circuit:<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737758127\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with a resistor. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the resistor as functions of time, showing them to be exactly in phase.  <\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737763020\" data-alt=\"Part a of the diagram shows a resistor R connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage drop across the resistor R is given by V R.Part b of the diagram shows a graph showing the variation of voltage V R and current I R with time t. the V R and current I R are plotted along Y axis and time t is along the X axis. Both I and V are progressive cosine waves. The amplitude of I wave is more than V wave.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_03a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the diagram shows a resistor R connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage drop across the resistor R is given by V R.Part b of the diagram shows a graph showing the variation of voltage V R and current I R with time t. the V R and current I R are plotted along Y axis and time t is along the X axis. Both I and V are progressive cosine waves. The amplitude of I wave is more than V wave.\" width=\"400\"><\/span><\/p><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169737730746\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in a Resistor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736702911\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistor, the voltage is exactly in phase with the current\u2014they have a [latex]\\text{0\u00ba}[\/latex] phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737784611\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Section Summary<\/h1>\n<ul id=\"fs-id1169738048183\">\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737725415\">For inductors in AC circuits, we find that when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductor, the voltage leads the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a [latex]\\text{90\u00ba}[\/latex] phase angle.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736844107\">The opposition of an inductor to a change in current is expressed as a type of AC resistance.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736583869\">Ohm\u2019s law for an inductor is\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{L}}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p>where [latex]V[\/latex] is the rms voltage across the inductor.<\/p><\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737882424\">[latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] is defined to be the inductive reactance, given by\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p>with [latex]f[\/latex] the frequency of the AC voltage source in hertz.<\/p><\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738208811\">Inductive reactance [latex]{X}_{L}[\/latex] has units of ohms and is greatest at high frequencies.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736713656\">For capacitors, we find that when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage follows the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a [latex]\\text{90\u00ba}[\/latex] phase angle.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738012850\">Since a capacitor can stop current when fully charged, it limits current and offers another form of AC resistance; Ohm\u2019s law for a capacitor is\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]I=\\frac{V}{{X}_{C}}\\text{,}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<p>where [latex]V[\/latex] is the rms voltage across the capacitor.<\/p><\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737821215\">[latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] is defined to be the capacitive reactance, given by\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\">[latex]{X}_{C}=\\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}\\text{.}[\/latex]<\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738016153\">[latex]{X}_{C}[\/latex] has units of ohms and is greatest at low frequencies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"conceptual-questions\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738011145\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Conceptual Questions<\/h1>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738010807\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738250359\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737050603\">Presbycusis is a hearing loss due to age that progressively affects higher frequencies. A hearing aid amplifier is designed to amplify all frequencies equally. To adjust its output for presbycusis, would you put a capacitor in series or parallel with the hearing aid\u2019s speaker? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737854523\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738105398\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738054334\">Would you use a large inductance or a large capacitance in series with a system to filter out low frequencies, such as the 100 Hz hum in a sound system? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737930275\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737968751\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738211558\">High-frequency noise in AC power can damage computers. Does the plug-in unit designed to prevent this damage use a large inductance or a large capacitance (in series with the computer) to filter out such high frequencies? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738116308\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738012609\">Does inductance depend on current, frequency, or both? What about inductive reactance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737785016\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737861279\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738173969\">Explain why the capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(a) acts as a low-frequency filter between the two circuits, whereas that in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) acts as a high-frequency filter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738245387\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Capacitors and inductors. Capacitor with high frequency and low frequency.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737793629\" data-alt=\"The figure describes two circuits with two different connections. The first part of the diagram shows circuit one and circuit two connected in series and a capacitor C is connected between them. Both the circuits are shown as grounded. The second part of the diagram shows two circuits circuit one and circuit two connected to each other. At the point of connection one end of the capacitor is connected and the other end of the capacitor is grounded. Both the circuits are shown as grounded.\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_04a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"The figure describes two circuits with two different connections. The first part of the diagram shows circuit one and circuit two connected in series and a capacitor C is connected between them. Both the circuits are shown as grounded. The second part of the diagram shows two circuits circuit one and circuit two connected to each other. At the point of connection one end of the capacitor is connected and the other end of the capacitor is grounded. Both the circuits are shown as grounded.\" width=\"250\"><\/span><\/p><\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736669333\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738050827\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737869873\">If the capacitors in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a> are replaced by inductors, which acts as a low-frequency filter and which as a high-frequency filter?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"problems-exercises\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737726120\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Problems &amp; Exercises<\/h1>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738117280\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737793629\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738200256\">At what frequency will a 30.0 mH inductor have a reactance of<br>\n[latex]\\text{100 \u03a9}[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169737917875\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737728465\">531 Hz<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737786419\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736656664\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737812535\">What value of inductance should be used if a<br>\n[latex]\\text{20.0 k\u03a9}[\/latex]<br>\n reactance is needed at a frequency of 500 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738077769\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738072176\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736606594\">What capacitance should be used to produce a<br>\n[latex]\\text{2.00 M\u03a9}[\/latex] reactance at 60.0 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169737909282\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738045746\">1.33 nF<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738198876\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737757642\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738036322\">At what frequency will an 80.0 mF capacitor have a reactance of [latex]\\text{0.250 \u03a9}[\/latex]?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737729245\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737754951\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736825551\">(a) Find the current through a 0.500 H inductor connected to a 60.0 Hz, 480 V AC source. (b) What would the current be at 100 kHz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738193476\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737772039\">(a) 2.55 A<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737826940\">(b) 1.53 mA<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738086496\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737812738\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737825035\">(a) What current flows when a 60.0 Hz, 480 V AC source is connected to a<br>\n[latex]\\text{0.250 \u03bcF}[\/latex]<br>\n capacitor? (b) What would the current be at 25.0 kHz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738198521\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737848534\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737972545\">A 20.0 kHz, 16.0 V source connected to an inductor produces a 2.00 A current. What is the inductance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738077151\">\n[latex]\\text{63.7 \u00b5H}[\/latex]\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737994347\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737764442\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736658894\">A 20.0 Hz, 16.0 V source produces a 2.00 mA current when connected to a capacitor. What is the capacitance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738250258\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737802646\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737734640\">(a) An inductor designed to filter high-frequency noise from power supplied to a personal computer is placed in series with the computer. What minimum inductance should it have to produce a<br>\n[latex]\\text{2.00 k\u03a9}[\/latex] reactance for 15.0 kHz noise? (b) What is its reactance at 60.0 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169736983958\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737814409\">(a) 21.2 mH<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737854280\">(b) [latex]\\text{8.00 \u03a9}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738162931\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736713656\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736583393\">The capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(a) is designed to filter low-frequency signals, impeding their transmission between circuits. (a) What capacitance is needed to produce a<br>\n[latex]\\text{100 k\u03a9}[\/latex] reactance at a frequency of 120 Hz? (b) What would its reactance be at 1.00 MHz? (c) Discuss the implications of your answers to (a) and (b).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736611033\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736583899\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738116034\">The capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) will filter high-frequency signals by shorting them to earth\/ground. (a) What capacitance is needed to produce a reactance of<br>\n[latex]\\text{10.0 m\u03a9}[\/latex] for a 5.00 kHz signal? (b) What would its reactance be at 3.00 Hz? (c) Discuss the implications of your answers to (a) and (b).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738110286\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738138113\">(a) 3.18 mF<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737965361\">(b) [latex]\\text{16.7 \u03a9}[\/latex]<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737802631\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736756883\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737819164\"><strong>Unreasonable Results<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In a recording of voltages due to brain activity (an EEG), a 10.0 mV signal with a 0.500 Hz frequency is applied to a capacitor, producing a current of 100 mA. Resistance is negligible. (a) What is the capacitance? (b) What is unreasonable about this result? (c) Which assumption or premise is responsible?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736919851\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736620528\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738131438\"><strong>Construct Your Own Problem<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Consider the use of an inductor in series with a computer operating on 60 Hz electricity. Construct a problem in which you calculate the relative reduction in voltage of incoming high frequency noise compared to 60 Hz voltage. Among the things to consider are the acceptable series reactance of the inductor for 60 Hz power and the likely frequencies of noise coming through the power lines.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\" class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl class=\"definition\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738074090\">\n<dt>inductive reactance<\/dt>\n<dd>the opposition of an inductor to a change in current; calculated by [latex]{X}_{L}=2\\pi \\text{fL}[\/latex]<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl class=\"definition\" id=\"import-auto-id1169736611323\">\n<dt>capacitive reactance<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169737724984\">the opposition of a capacitor to a change in current; calculated by [latex]{X}_{C}=\\frac{1}{2\\pi \\text{fC}}[\/latex]<\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n\n","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox learning-objectives\">\n<h3 itemprop=\"educationalUse\">Learning Objectives<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Sketch voltage and current versus time in simple inductive, capacitive, and resistive circuits.<\/li>\n<li>Calculate inductive and capacitive reactance.<\/li>\n<li>Calculate current and\/or voltage in simple inductive, capacitive, and resistive circuits.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737788365\">Many circuits also contain capacitors and inductors, in addition to resistors and an AC voltage source. We have seen how capacitors and inductors respond to DC voltage when it is switched on and off. We will now explore how inductors and capacitors react to sinusoidal AC voltage.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738105248\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Inductors and Inductive Reactance<\/h1>\n<p>Suppose an inductor is connected directly to an AC voltage source, as shown in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169736696969\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>. It is reasonable to assume negligible resistance, since in practice we can make the resistance of an inductor so small that it has a negligible effect on the circuit. Also shown is a graph of voltage and current as functions of time.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169736696969\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with an inductor having negligible resistance. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the inductor as functions of time.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738014869\" data-alt=\"Part a of the figure describes an A C voltage source V connected across an inductor L. The voltage across the inductance is shown as V L. Part b of the figure describes a graph showing the variation of current and voltage across the inductance as a function of time. The voltage V L and current I L is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin. The graph for voltage V is a cosine wave and an amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_01a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the figure describes an A C voltage source V connected across an inductor L. The voltage across the inductance is shown as V L. Part b of the figure describes a graph showing the variation of current and voltage across the inductance as a function of time. The voltage V L and current I L is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin. The graph for voltage V is a cosine wave and an amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\" width=\"400\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737804173\">The graph in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169736696969\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) starts with voltage at a maximum. Note that the current starts at zero and rises to its peak <em data-effect=\"italics\">after<\/em> the voltage that drives it, just as was the case when DC voltage was switched on in the preceding section. When the voltage becomes negative at point a, the current begins to decrease; it becomes zero at point b, where voltage is its most negative. The current then becomes negative, again following the voltage. The voltage becomes positive at point c and begins to make the current less negative. At point d, the current goes through zero just as the voltage reaches its positive peak to start another cycle. This behavior is summarized as follows:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169735571584\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in an Inductor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738084033\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductor, the voltage leads the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0ef094c705f55f76b4993ff72af9e73f_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#57;&#48;&ordm;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"18\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738086892\">Current lags behind voltage, since inductors oppose change in current. Changing current induces a back emf <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-6400256a61851437532e5a3715b0f953_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#86;&#61;&#45;&#76;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#32;&#73;&#47;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#32;&#116;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"134\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/>. This is considered to be an effective resistance of the inductor to AC. The rms current <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-18b5e45cb4a1ee02e81b9a980f828db8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"9\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> through an inductor <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-66a9f474fc3c52efdfb0ba6a70199ee8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#76;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"12\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is given by a version of Ohm\u2019s law:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-38c316eb3bdd883b6ebe58ac30b3d3cc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"24\" width=\"61\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738061327\">where<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-63ada879859a9e41fd935f035b7313bc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#86;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is the rms voltage across the inductor and <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is defined to be<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-011261dd07a0a2bf53388af63d5146d6_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"89\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737988958\">with <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9c09a708375fde2676da319bcdfe8b24_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#102;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/> the frequency of the AC voltage source in hertz (An analysis of the circuit using Kirchhoff\u2019s loop rule and calculus actually produces this expression). <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is called the <span data-type=\"term\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737804525\">inductive reactance<\/span>, because the inductor reacts to impede the current. <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> has units of ohms (<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4bd0767b129559d250380d4dbf5947c6_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#49;&#32;&#72;&#61;&#49;&#32;&#92;&#79;&#109;&#101;&#103;&#97;&#32;&#92;&#99;&#100;&#111;&#116;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#115;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"89\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/>, so that frequency times inductance has units of <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f45181d0f71f981748ce06d6e2362644_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#99;&#121;&#99;&#108;&#101;&#115;&#47;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#79;&#109;&#101;&#103;&#97;&#32;&#92;&#99;&#100;&#111;&#116;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#61;&#92;&#79;&#109;&#101;&#103;&#97;&#32;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"159\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/>), consistent with its role as an effective resistance. It makes sense that <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is proportional to <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-66a9f474fc3c52efdfb0ba6a70199ee8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#76;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"12\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/>, since the greater the induction the greater its resistance to change. It is also reasonable that <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is proportional to frequency <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9c09a708375fde2676da319bcdfe8b24_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#102;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/>, since greater frequency means greater change in current. That is, <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-299c3dec7d2f6db7bd259a64e5ddc1a5_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#32;&#73;&#47;&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#32;&#116;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"54\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/> is large for large frequencies (large <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9c09a708375fde2676da319bcdfe8b24_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#102;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/><em data-effect=\"italics\">,<\/em> small <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0714636704a254c71bede042781bc57a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#68;&#101;&#108;&#116;&#97;&#32;&#116;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"21\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/>). The greater the change, the greater the opposition of an inductor.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"example\" class=\"textbox examples\" id=\"fs-id1169736972664\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">Calculating Inductive Reactance and then Current<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738234775\">(a) Calculate the inductive reactance of a 3.00 mH inductor when 60.0 Hz and 10.0 kHz AC voltages are applied. (b) What is the rms current at each frequency if the applied rms voltage is 120 V?<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737771210\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738010624\">The inductive reactance is found directly from the expression <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4ff11392c2048c4bf33677ab30c10c12_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"84\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/>. Once <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> has been found at each frequency, Ohm\u2019s law as stated in the Equation <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-763db0239f7a95606a7d231ddf457cdb_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#86;&#47;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"78\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/> can be used to find the current at each frequency.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738082082\"><strong>Solution for (a)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736659051\">Entering the frequency and inductance into Equation <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4ff11392c2048c4bf33677ab30c10c12_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"84\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> gives<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4790d300d5cde2a9b562a1c321e79a58_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#54;&#46;&#50;&#56;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#54;&#48;&#46;&#48;&#125;&#47;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#51;&#46;&#48;&#48;&#32;&#109;&#72;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#61;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#46;&#49;&#51;&#32;&Omega;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#54;&#48;&#32;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"19\" width=\"421\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737806696\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-126\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-c836bf7c3d686a56db2f81a778653d10_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#54;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#56;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#49;&#46;&#48;&#48;&times;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#47;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#51;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#48;&#32;&#109;&#72;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#61;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#56;&#56;&#32;&Omega;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#49;&#48;&#32;&#107;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"22\" width=\"456\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736864032\"><strong>Solution for (b)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736584158\">The rms current is now found using the version of Ohm\u2019s law in Equation <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-763db0239f7a95606a7d231ddf457cdb_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#86;&#47;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"78\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/>, given the applied rms voltage is 120 V. For the first frequency, this yields<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-65ce61f9e4a2b18665a27ea1b15c3164_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#50;&#48;&#32;&#86;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#49;&#46;&#49;&#51;&#32;&#92;&#79;&#109;&#101;&#103;&#97;&#32;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#54;&#32;&#65;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#54;&#48;&#32;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"266\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738134009\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-308815cc8b8f4ee6692e830020b0bf32_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#50;&#48;&#32;&#86;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#56;&#56;&#32;&Omega;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#48;&#46;&#54;&#51;&#55;&#32;&#65;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#49;&#48;&#32;&#107;&#72;&#122;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"270\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737711680\"><strong>Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738145157\">The inductor reacts very differently at the two different frequencies. At the higher frequency, its reactance is large and the current is small, consistent with how an inductor impedes rapid change. Thus high frequencies are impeded the most. Inductors can be used to filter out high frequencies; for example, a large inductor can be put in series with a sound reproduction system or in series with your home computer to reduce high-frequency sound output from your speakers or high-frequency power spikes into your computer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737053571\">Note that although the resistance in the circuit considered is negligible, the AC current is not extremely large because inductive reactance impedes its flow. With AC, there is no time for the current to become extremely large.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738031883\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Capacitors and Capacitive Reactance<\/h1>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736684871\">Consider the capacitor connected directly to an AC voltage source as shown in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738082254\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>. The resistance of a circuit like this can be made so small that it has a negligible effect compared with the capacitor, and so we can assume negligible resistance. Voltage across the capacitor and current are graphed as functions of time in the figure.<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738082254\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with a capacitor <em data-effect=\"italics\">C<\/em> having negligible resistance. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738087944\" data-alt=\"Part a of the figure shows a capacitor C connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage across the capacitor is given by V C. Part b of the diagram shows a graph for the variation of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time. The voltage V C and current I C is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin starting with a wave along the negative Y axis. The graph for voltage is a cosine wave and amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_02a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the figure shows a capacitor C connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage across the capacitor is given by V C. Part b of the diagram shows a graph for the variation of current and voltage across the capacitor as functions of time. The voltage V C and current I C is plotted along the Y axis and the time t is along the X axis. The graph for current is a progressive sine wave from the origin starting with a wave along the negative Y axis. The graph for voltage is a cosine wave and amplitude slightly less than the current wave.\" width=\"400\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737765333\">The graph in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738082254\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a> starts with voltage across the capacitor at a maximum. The current is zero at this point, because the capacitor is fully charged and halts the flow. Then voltage drops and the current becomes negative as the capacitor discharges. At point a, the capacitor has fully discharged (<em data-effect=\"italics\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-2c6128cae9426ecad7265c74f405979e_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#81;&#61;&#48;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"47\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/><\/em> on it) and the voltage across it is zero. The current remains negative between points a and b, causing the voltage on the capacitor to reverse. This is complete at point b, where the current is zero and the voltage has its most negative value. The current becomes positive after point b, neutralizing the charge on the capacitor and bringing the voltage to zero at point c, which allows the current to reach its maximum. Between points c and d, the current drops to zero as the voltage rises to its peak, and the process starts to repeat. Throughout the cycle, the voltage follows what the current is doing by one-fourth of a cycle:<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169737784517\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in a Capacitor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737796643\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage follows the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0ef094c705f55f76b4993ff72af9e73f_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#57;&#48;&ordm;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"18\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/><br \/>\n phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>The capacitor is affecting the current, having the ability to stop it altogether when fully charged. Since an AC voltage is applied, there is an rms current, but it is limited by the capacitor. This is considered to be an effective resistance of the capacitor to AC, and so the rms current <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-18b5e45cb4a1ee02e81b9a980f828db8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"9\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> in the circuit containing only a capacitor <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f34f74d98915e33f37a086f8cbfb996a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#67;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is given by another version of Ohm\u2019s law to be<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-604\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-8e3d598e5af37929f308886ac05f4571_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"24\" width=\"62\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737917721\">where <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-63ada879859a9e41fd935f035b7313bc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#86;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is the rms voltage and <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is defined (As with <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/>, this expression for <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> results from an analysis of the circuit using Kirchhoff\u2019s rules and calculus)<sup> to be<\/sup><\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-94d5e4bd6486016fab141608695932fe_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"23\" width=\"87\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736615624\">where <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is called the <span data-type=\"term\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737819555\">capacitive reactance<\/span>, because the capacitor reacts to impede the current. <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> has units of ohms (verification left as an exercise for the reader). <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is inversely proportional to the capacitance <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f34f74d98915e33f37a086f8cbfb996a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#67;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/>; the larger the capacitor, the greater the charge it can store and the greater the current that can flow. It is also inversely proportional to the frequency <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9c09a708375fde2676da319bcdfe8b24_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#102;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/>; the greater the frequency, the less time there is to fully charge the capacitor, and so it impedes current less.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"example\" class=\"textbox examples\" id=\"fs-id1169736597928\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">Calculating Capacitive Reactance and then Current<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737895572\">(a) Calculate the capacitive reactance of a 5.00 mF capacitor when 60.0 Hz and 10.0 kHz AC voltages are applied. (b) What is the rms current if the applied rms voltage is 120 V?<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737939050\"><strong>Strategy<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737714880\">The capacitive reactance is found directly from the expression in <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-6a80df542a960fde73eec923d9b6fa2a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"23\" width=\"82\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/>. Once<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>has been found at each frequency, Ohm\u2019s law stated as <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-70d7697871ce2733a039cc07d98b33aa_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#86;&#47;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"80\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/> can be used to find the current at each frequency.<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738179315\"><strong>Solution for (a)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738094747\">Entering the frequency and capacitance into <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-6a80df542a960fde73eec923d9b6fa2a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"23\" width=\"82\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/> gives<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-87bb6f4ed9a6f2e82fa46f41259928c5_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#98;&#101;&#103;&#105;&#110;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#123;&#108;&#108;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#38;&#32;&#61;&#38;&#32;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#38;&#32;&#61;&#38;&#32;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#54;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#56;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#54;&#48;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#48;&#47;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#53;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#48;&#125;&#92;&#109;&#97;&#116;&#104;&#114;&#109;&#123;&#32;&#92;&#109;&#117;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#70;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#53;&#51;&#49;&#32;&Omega;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#54;&#48;&#32;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#101;&#110;&#100;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"48\" width=\"333\" style=\"vertical-align: -19px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738052092\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\" id=\"eip-399\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-534e9d169d1db1227e75aec23d42637c_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#98;&#101;&#103;&#105;&#110;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#123;&#108;&#108;&#108;&#125;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#38;&#32;&#61;&#38;&#32;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#54;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#56;&#125;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#49;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#48;&#125;&times;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#125;&#125;&#94;&#123;&#52;&#125;&#47;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#115;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#92;&#108;&#101;&#102;&#116;&#40;&#53;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#48;&#125;&#92;&#109;&#97;&#116;&#104;&#114;&#109;&#123;&#32;&#92;&#109;&#117;&#32;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#70;&#125;&#92;&#114;&#105;&#103;&#104;&#116;&#41;&#125;&#92;&#92;&#32;&#38;&#32;&#61;&#38;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#46;&#49;&#56;&#32;&Omega;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#49;&#48;&#32;&#107;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#92;&#101;&#110;&#100;&#123;&#97;&#114;&#114;&#97;&#121;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"47\" width=\"293\" style=\"vertical-align: -16px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736590721\"><strong>Solution for (b)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738251850\">The rms current is now found using the version of Ohm\u2019s law in <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-70d7697871ce2733a039cc07d98b33aa_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#86;&#47;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"18\" width=\"80\" style=\"vertical-align: -5px;\" \/>, given the applied rms voltage is 120 V. For the first frequency, this yields<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4d6bb2e364c0d91d46f7eb59355f02b8_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#50;&#48;&#32;&#86;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#53;&#51;&#49;&#32;&Omega;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#50;&#54;&#32;&#65;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#54;&#48;&#32;&#72;&#122;&#125;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"281\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736894272\">Similarly, at 10 kHz,<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f010946e621fb43d06adcc9e07eb1f12_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#50;&#48;&#32;&#86;&#125;&#125;&#123;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#51;&#46;&#49;&#56;&#32;&Omega;&#125;&#125;&#61;&#51;&#55;&#46;&#55;&#32;&#65;&#32;&#97;&#116;&#32;&#49;&#48;&#32;&#107;&#72;&#122;&#46;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"25\" width=\"262\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737827258\"><strong>Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The capacitor reacts very differently at the two different frequencies, and in exactly the opposite way an inductor reacts. At the higher frequency, its reactance is small and the current is large. Capacitors favor change, whereas inductors oppose change. Capacitors impede low frequencies the most, since low frequency allows them time to become charged and stop the current. Capacitors can be used to filter out low frequencies. For example, a capacitor in series with a sound reproduction system rids it of the 60 Hz hum.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738176743\">Although a capacitor is basically an open circuit, there is an rms current in a circuit with an AC voltage applied to a capacitor. This is because the voltage is continually reversing, charging and discharging the capacitor. If the frequency goes to zero (DC), <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> tends to infinity, and the current is zero once the capacitor is charged. At very high frequencies, the capacitor\u2019s reactance tends to zero\u2014it has a negligible reactance and does not impede the current (it acts like a simple wire). <em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">Capacitors have the opposite effect on AC circuits that inductors have<\/em><\/em>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-section section\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737961091\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Resistors in an AC Circuit<\/h1>\n<p id=\"fs-id1169737906325\">Just as a reminder, consider <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169737758127\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>, which shows an AC voltage applied to a resistor and a graph of voltage and current versus time. The voltage and current are exactly <em data-effect=\"italics\">in <\/em><em data-effect=\"italics\"><em data-effect=\"italics\">phase<\/em><\/em> in a resistor. There is no frequency dependence to the behavior of plain resistance in a circuit:<\/p>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737758127\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">(a) An AC voltage source in series with a resistor. (b) Graph of current and voltage across the resistor as functions of time, showing them to be exactly in phase.  <\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737763020\" data-alt=\"Part a of the diagram shows a resistor R connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage drop across the resistor R is given by V R.Part b of the diagram shows a graph showing the variation of voltage V R and current I R with time t. the V R and current I R are plotted along Y axis and time t is along the X axis. Both I and V are progressive cosine waves. The amplitude of I wave is more than V wave.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_03a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"Part a of the diagram shows a resistor R connected across an A C voltage source V. The voltage drop across the resistor R is given by V R.Part b of the diagram shows a graph showing the variation of voltage V R and current I R with time t. the V R and current I R are plotted along Y axis and time t is along the X axis. Both I and V are progressive cosine waves. The amplitude of I wave is more than V wave.\" width=\"400\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"note\" class=\"note\" data-has-label=\"true\" id=\"fs-id1169737730746\" data-label=\"\">\n<div data-type=\"title\" class=\"title\">AC Voltage in a Resistor<\/div>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736702911\">When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistor, the voltage is exactly in phase with the current\u2014they have a <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-a47cfc3a49ca80166a5e1f089c13ad7c_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&ordm;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"9\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> phase angle.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"section-summary\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737784611\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Section Summary<\/h1>\n<ul id=\"fs-id1169738048183\">\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737725415\">For inductors in AC circuits, we find that when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an inductor, the voltage leads the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0ef094c705f55f76b4993ff72af9e73f_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#57;&#48;&ordm;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"18\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> phase angle.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736844107\">The opposition of an inductor to a change in current is expressed as a type of AC resistance.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736583869\">Ohm\u2019s law for an inductor is\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-38c316eb3bdd883b6ebe58ac30b3d3cc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"24\" width=\"61\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p>where <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-63ada879859a9e41fd935f035b7313bc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#86;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is the rms voltage across the inductor.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737882424\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is defined to be the inductive reactance, given by\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-011261dd07a0a2bf53388af63d5146d6_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"89\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p>with <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-9c09a708375fde2676da319bcdfe8b24_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#102;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"10\" style=\"vertical-align: -4px;\" \/> the frequency of the AC voltage source in hertz.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738208811\">Inductive reactance <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-13e1447fbbc05ce526bbb19dcc6f27b2_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"24\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> has units of ohms and is greatest at high frequencies.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169736713656\">For capacitors, we find that when a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage follows the current by one-fourth of a cycle, or by a <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0ef094c705f55f76b4993ff72af9e73f_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#57;&#48;&ordm;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"18\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> phase angle.<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738012850\">Since a capacitor can stop current when fully charged, it limits current and offers another form of AC resistance; Ohm\u2019s law for a capacitor is\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-8e3d598e5af37929f308886ac05f4571_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#73;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#86;&#125;&#123;&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#44;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"24\" width=\"62\" style=\"vertical-align: -8px;\" \/><\/div>\n<p>where <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-63ada879859a9e41fd935f035b7313bc_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#86;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"14\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> is the rms voltage across the capacitor.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169737821215\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> is defined to be the capacitive reactance, given by\n<div data-type=\"equation\" class=\"equation\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-38bcf13c1aa58b074bc1bc05b1ca30e6_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#46;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"23\" width=\"87\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/><\/div>\n<\/li>\n<li id=\"import-auto-id1169738016153\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-f3bbc387a551b3d3ceba0ba28a41d038_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"15\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/> has units of ohms and is greatest at low frequencies.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"conceptual-questions\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169738011145\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Conceptual Questions<\/h1>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738010807\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738250359\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737050603\">Presbycusis is a hearing loss due to age that progressively affects higher frequencies. A hearing aid amplifier is designed to amplify all frequencies equally. To adjust its output for presbycusis, would you put a capacitor in series or parallel with the hearing aid\u2019s speaker? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737854523\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738105398\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738054334\">Would you use a large inductance or a large capacitance in series with a system to filter out low frequencies, such as the 100 Hz hum in a sound system? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737930275\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737968751\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738211558\">High-frequency noise in AC power can damage computers. Does the plug-in unit designed to prevent this damage use a large inductance or a large capacitance (in series with the computer) to filter out such high frequencies? Explain.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738116308\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738012609\">Does inductance depend on current, frequency, or both? What about inductive reactance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737785016\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737861279\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738173969\">Explain why the capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(a) acts as a low-frequency filter between the two circuits, whereas that in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) acts as a high-frequency filter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"bc-figure figure\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738245387\">\n<div class=\"bc-figcaption figcaption\">Capacitors and inductors. Capacitor with high frequency and low frequency.<\/div>\n<p><span data-type=\"media\" id=\"import-auto-id1169737793629\" data-alt=\"The figure describes two circuits with two different connections. The first part of the diagram shows circuit one and circuit two connected in series and a capacitor C is connected between them. Both the circuits are shown as grounded. The second part of the diagram shows two circuits circuit one and circuit two connected to each other. At the point of connection one end of the capacitor is connected and the other end of the capacitor is grounded. Both the circuits are shown as grounded.\"><img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/clalonde\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/280\/2017\/10\/Figure_24_11_04a.jpg\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpg\" alt=\"The figure describes two circuits with two different connections. The first part of the diagram shows circuit one and circuit two connected in series and a capacitor C is connected between them. Both the circuits are shown as grounded. The second part of the diagram shows two circuits circuit one and circuit two connected to each other. At the point of connection one end of the capacitor is connected and the other end of the capacitor is grounded. Both the circuits are shown as grounded.\" width=\"250\" \/><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736669333\" data-element-type=\"conceptual-questions\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738050827\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737869873\">If the capacitors in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a> are replaced by inductors, which acts as a low-frequency filter and which as a high-frequency filter?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"problems-exercises\" data-depth=\"1\" id=\"fs-id1169737726120\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<h1 data-type=\"title\">Problems &amp; Exercises<\/h1>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738117280\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737793629\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738200256\">At what frequency will a 30.0 mH inductor have a reactance of<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-6db69802520e0707517d45c267fd08c9_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#48;&#32;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"26\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/>?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169737917875\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737728465\">531 Hz<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737786419\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736656664\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737812535\">What value of inductance should be used if a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-72822eccfed955357162f87b1f281a5e_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#48;&#46;&#48;&#32;&#107;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"47\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/><br \/>\n reactance is needed at a frequency of 500 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738077769\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169738072176\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736606594\">What capacitance should be used to produce a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-0e2c37f190beab5d4e67af42cba6ccfd_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#46;&#48;&#48;&#32;&#77;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"53\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/> reactance at 60.0 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169737909282\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738045746\">1.33 nF<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738198876\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737757642\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738036322\">At what frequency will an 80.0 mF capacitor have a reactance of <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-8236538698508cb95c373326a4472b64_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#53;&#48;&#32;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"41\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/>?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737729245\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737754951\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736825551\">(a) Find the current through a 0.500 H inductor connected to a 60.0 Hz, 480 V AC source. (b) What would the current be at 100 kHz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738193476\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737772039\">(a) 2.55 A<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737826940\">(b) 1.53 mA<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738086496\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737812738\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737825035\">(a) What current flows when a 60.0 Hz, 480 V AC source is connected to a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-768091ca29b5979f5f58958fe8c70146_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#48;&#46;&#50;&#53;&#48;&#32;&mu;&#70;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"14\" width=\"57\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/><br \/>\n capacitor? (b) What would the current be at 25.0 kHz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738198521\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737848534\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737972545\">A 20.0 kHz, 16.0 V source connected to an inductor produces a 2.00 A current. What is the inductance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738077151\">\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-5ae51b23dad696cd3504fded9acddf4c_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#54;&#51;&#46;&#55;&#32;&micro;&#72;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"14\" width=\"50\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737994347\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737764442\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736658894\">A 20.0 Hz, 16.0 V source produces a 2.00 mA current when connected to a capacitor. What is the capacitance?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738250258\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169737802646\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737734640\">(a) An inductor designed to filter high-frequency noise from power supplied to a personal computer is placed in series with the computer. What minimum inductance should it have to produce a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-d43b2c5c65b7ef957eb98e576dc54e92_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#50;&#46;&#48;&#48;&#32;&#107;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"47\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/> reactance for 15.0 kHz noise? (b) What is its reactance at 60.0 Hz?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169736983958\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737814409\">(a) 21.2 mH<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737854280\">(b) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-e0658e35835ed6eeff5730855759bc92_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#56;&#46;&#48;&#48;&#32;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"12\" width=\"32\" style=\"vertical-align: 0px;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169738162931\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736713656\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169736583393\">The capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(a) is designed to filter low-frequency signals, impeding their transmission between circuits. (a) What capacitance is needed to produce a<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-e8c5e0a0a4d131d289bf8543cb2f69c4_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#48;&#32;&#107;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"14\" width=\"42\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/> reactance at a frequency of 120 Hz? (b) What would its reactance be at 1.00 MHz? (c) Discuss the implications of your answers to (a) and (b).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736611033\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736583899\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738116034\">The capacitor in <a href=\"#import-auto-id1169738245387\" class=\"autogenerated-content\">(Figure)<\/a>(b) will filter high-frequency signals by shorting them to earth\/ground. (a) What capacitance is needed to produce a reactance of<br \/>\n<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-5a75c42066e238e00f12f0e04499d441_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#48;&#46;&#48;&#32;&#109;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"13\" width=\"51\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/> for a 5.00 kHz signal? (b) What would its reactance be at 3.00 Hz? (c) Discuss the implications of your answers to (a) and (b).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"solution\" class=\"solution\" id=\"fs-id1169738110286\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738138113\">(a) 3.18 mF<\/p>\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737965361\">(b) <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-e303e10376c45aa804e8c27242d61a9d_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#49;&#54;&#46;&#55;&#32;&Omega;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"14\" width=\"31\" style=\"vertical-align: -1px;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169737802631\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736756883\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169737819164\"><strong>Unreasonable Results<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In a recording of voltages due to brain activity (an EEG), a 10.0 mV signal with a 0.500 Hz frequency is applied to a capacitor, producing a current of 100 mA. Resistance is negligible. (a) What is the capacitance? (b) What is unreasonable about this result? (c) Which assumption or premise is responsible?<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"exercise\" class=\"exercise\" id=\"fs-id1169736919851\" data-element-type=\"problems-exercises\">\n<div data-type=\"problem\" class=\"problem\" id=\"fs-id1169736620528\">\n<p id=\"import-auto-id1169738131438\"><strong>Construct Your Own Problem<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Consider the use of an inductor in series with a computer operating on 60 Hz electricity. Construct a problem in which you calculate the relative reduction in voltage of incoming high frequency noise compared to 60 Hz voltage. Among the things to consider are the acceptable series reactance of the inductor for 60 Hz power and the likely frequencies of noise coming through the power lines.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div data-type=\"glossary\" class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<h2 data-type=\"glossary-title\">Glossary<\/h2>\n<dl class=\"definition\" id=\"import-auto-id1169738074090\">\n<dt>inductive reactance<\/dt>\n<dd>the opposition of an inductor to a change in current; calculated by <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-4ff11392c2048c4bf33677ab30c10c12_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#76;&#125;&#61;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#76;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"16\" width=\"84\" style=\"vertical-align: -3px;\" \/><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<dl class=\"definition\" id=\"import-auto-id1169736611323\">\n<dt>capacitive reactance<\/dt>\n<dd id=\"fs-id1169737724984\">the opposition of a capacitor to a change in current; calculated by <img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-content\/ql-cache\/quicklatex.com-6a80df542a960fde73eec923d9b6fa2a_l3.png\" class=\"ql-img-inline-formula quicklatex-auto-format\" alt=\"&#123;&#88;&#125;&#95;&#123;&#67;&#125;&#61;&#92;&#102;&#114;&#97;&#99;&#123;&#49;&#125;&#123;&#50;&#92;&#112;&#105;&#32;&#92;&#116;&#101;&#120;&#116;&#123;&#102;&#67;&#125;&#125;\" title=\"Rendered by QuickLaTeX.com\" height=\"23\" width=\"82\" style=\"vertical-align: -7px;\" \/><\/dd>\n<\/dl>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":211,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"all-rights-reserved"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[56],"class_list":["post-1365","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","license-all-rights-reserved"],"part":1290,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1365","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/211"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1365\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1366,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1365\/revisions\/1366"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1290"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1365\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1365"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1365"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1365"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.bccampus.ca\/ubcbatessandbox\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1365"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}