Discussion of language use in digital contexts persists as a theme in the literature post-2004, but the emphasis has shifted from simple “English-dominance” anxiety to nuanced multilingual and translingual practice, including uses of English as a multilingual franca (Baker & Sangiamchit, 2019). Work investigating the impact of digital media and online connectivity on literacy further illuminates these dynamics (see for example Bloom & Johnston, 2010; Coyle, 2015; Hauck, 2019; Hull & Stornaiuolo, 2014; Kim, 2016; Koponen, 2020; Koutsogiannis, 2015; Lam, 2009). A proliferation of new forms of text, reading, and writing has been widely observed, and shows both a proliferation of forms and a consolidation of genres that can stabilize dominant patterns (Pennington, 2017). Platformed spaces also foster vernaculars that may reproduce power and exclusion (e.g., comment-section toxicity, hate speech) (Vujović & Obradović, 2017).

Research into online communication, particularly in culturally diverse settings, continues to revolve around some familiar themes, largely relating to the complexities introduced by cultural differences and language barriers in digital interactions.

 i.      Intercultural communication practices in digital spaces (language focus)

Here, we use online intercultural communication to mean interactional language practices among participants from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds in digital settings (Christofi, 2020). This work foregrounds how context, platform norms, and situation shape linguistic choices and identity display; online exchanges can unsettle stereotyped national markers and reconfigure the cues by which identity is read (Sandel et al., 2019).

Across studies, interactional challenges are described less as discrete “breakdowns” and more as complexities of language use: aligning expectations for turn-taking and contribution, negotiating disagreement, and managing participation when non-linguistic cues (tone, gesture) are attenuated (Kumi-Yeboah et al., 2022). These conditions can yield variable participation patterns within diverse groups and can make pragmatic work (stance-taking, mitigation, repair) especially consequential. Language itself is frequently identified as a barrier for minoritized individuals; suggested mitigations include translation-tool literacies and other multilingual supports to facilitate interaction (McClure & Cifuentes, 2022).

At the same time, online interaction is also a resource for understanding difference and co-constructing common ground (Christofi, 2020; Vujović & Obradović, 2017). Under distinctive conditions–such as the COVID-19 period that catalyzed novel forms of contact–continuous online exchanges both mirror and transform prior communicative norms, with adaptation visible in discourse choices and participation patterns (Christofi, 2020; Croucher, 2011; Sandel, 2014).

These micro-level language dynamics have direct consequences for pedagogical design in digital learning spaces (task framing, feedback, assessment) and learner support (scaffolding pragmatics, multilingual resources), which we take up in Theme 4.

ii.      Multilingualism and translingualism

Some of the work we reviewed in 2004 discussed multilingualism and translingualism, particularly in the context of internet communication and its cultural implications. Generally, commentators discussed the reality of a multilingual internet. Some of those older studies examined how linguistic, technological, and social factors shape new forms of communication in various languages, and how code-switching occurred in bilingual or multilingual online interactions. Others explored how different linguistic communities distinguish themselves and how linguistic boundaries often align with cultural ones, as well as the suggestion that a “new pidgin Network English” might be evolving. Generally, work flagged the importance of considering multilingualism is emphasized for designing culturally appropriate interfaces and educational environments.

Work in our new collection gives evidence of a more sustained focus on multilingualism and translingualism in digital spaces, often through the lens of ‘trans’ theories from applied linguistics (see for example Baker & Sangiamchit, 2019; Cornillie et al., 2021; Domingo, 2014). They highlight key themes, arguments, and areas for future research, particularly emphasizing a shift from traditional views of language and culture.

Various writers offer definitions of some of the core concepts. Translingualism, rooted in the concept of translanguaging, reconceptualizes language as a dynamic and heterogeneous practice that emerges from the interactions within multilingual networks and societies (Prieto-Arranz et al., 2013). The development of ‘trans-metaphor’ in research, drawing upon notions such as ‘transnational’ and ‘translocal,’ has advanced critical thinking by shifting away from the notion of static cultures that individuals simply move between. Transcultural approaches, integrating these critical perspectives, open up new directions for scholarly inquiry by emphasizing the evolving connections and relationships among languages, cultures, and communities, and by seeking to transcend, transgress, and transform established categories, scales, and boundaries (Baker & Sangiamchit, 2019). Notably, transcultural communication, informed by ‘trans’ theories from applied linguistics and especially translanguaging, is seen as analogous to the idea of a ‘translanguaging space’–a domain forged by and for translanguaging practices in which language users actively deconstruct ideological dichotomies such as macro versus micro, societal versus individual, and social versus psychological, through ongoing interaction (Baker, 2022). While translanguaging can be considered a pragmatic approach to efficient multilingual communication (codes, registers, languages) and, possibly, a supporting instrument in language learning and teaching, it has also been criticized for potentially leading to the fossilization of codes and stages in language acquisition and, as a consequence, to exclusion, disempowerment, and disengagement.  We suggest that more scholarly attention is needed to these issues with respect to the use of digital media in communication.

A key focus in recent scholarship is the growing emphasis on fluidity, liminality, and emergent connections in language and cultural practices, reflecting a shift away from static or fixed categories (Baker & Sangiamchit, 2019). Research demonstrates that multilingualism, especially in digital contexts, not only cultivates creativity and a sense of freedom but also exposes inequalities and the continued influence of monolingual and Anglophone ideologies, particularly those linked to English. The pedagogical implications are significant: educators are encouraged to recognize multilingualism, cultural mediation, and the value of ‘contact zones’, all of which are closely associated with the concept of transculturation. Furthermore, while a variety of ‘trans’ terms circulate in the literature–such as transculturality, translanguaging, and transglossic–recent work suggests that these concepts can generate productive synergies through dialogue, rather than requiring scholars to privilege one framework over another. For example, a transglossic approach may integrate translanguaging, transmodality, and transculturality to better investigate contemporary linguistic and cultural practices (Baker, 2022) (Transmodality refers to meaning moving across modes—text, image, sound, video—within a single communicative activity).

Generally, papers in this category advocate for a dynamic, interconnected understanding of language and culture, moving away from static, bounded notions. They highlight the liberating potential of multilingual and ‘trans’ approaches while acknowledging existing structural constraints and call for continued research and methodological development in these areas. Baker (2022) notes, however, that transcultural communication and transcultural language education are still evolving concepts, and that further studies are needed to investigate their relevance in diverse settings.