We now turn to identities and belonging, examining identity-construction practices, national and ethnic markers, and participation in digital settings. In 2004, online identity was a central concern. The literature portrayed identity in digital spaces as dynamic and socially constructed, shaped through deliberate self-presentation and multiple, shifting personae that could diverge from offline selves. This fluidity enabled creativity and experimentation but also raised concerns about authenticity, deception, and harassment–even as many communities developed norms that discouraged irresponsible anonymity. Debates over disembodiment asked whether virtual environments simply extended the “virtualness” inherent in social life or fundamentally disrupted established identity practices. A major strand examined cultural identity and “virtual ethnicity” (Poster, 2001; Zurawski, 2000), questioning whether ethnicity requires embodied ritual and place, or whether online interaction introduces nonvisual criteria by which race and nationality continue to be inferred and negotiated. Scholars also analyzed group identity in virtual communities: some cautioned against assuming online ties could replace face-to-face relationships, while others argued that networked spaces allow previously latent collectives to coalesce. Overall, the period framed online identity as both liberating–opening new possibilities for expression and belonging–and fraught, given its implications for representation, community formation, and the reproduction or reworking of cultural markers.

Research into digital identities in work in our new collection of post-2004 literature highlights several key themes, issues, and areas of continuing study, particularly focussed on how digital spaces influence identity construction and social interaction.

 i.      Identity-construction practices in digital spaces

Identity construction and enactment remain a core area of interest in contemporary literature. Digital environments provide new opportunities for individuals to discursively construct and enact ‘achieved identities’ through discourse and text, especially where traditional identity markers are absent (see for example Campbell & Haynes, 2020; Dubreil, 2012; Goodfellow & Hewling, 2005; Kearney & Adachi, 2012; Thorne et al., 2015). Researchers have shifted their focus from practices of passive consumption of online media, to the active production practices and circulation of digital identities and cultures. However, the process of identity construction online is acknowledged to involve multiple sources of identification, and some scholars are making use of post-colonial approaches to highlight hybrid notions of national identity formation and the challenges users face (Fabrício, 2014; Hepp et al., 2012). Applied linguistics likewise emphasizes the fluid, mobile character of identity in language practices and participation (Pennycook, 2005).

ii.      Ethnic and national identities in digital spaces

One particular cluster of studies has continued to explore formation of ethnic and national identities in digital spaces (Black, 2009; Kirmayer et al., 2013; Lim & Pham, 2016; Solmaz, 2020; Tsagarousianou & Retis, 2019; Yadlin-Segal, 2017; Yau et al., 2019). In particular, there is recognition that digital spaces are increasingly utilized by immigrant and diaspora communities globally to aid in the formulation and sustainment of their ethnic identities and affiliations across geographical borders (Hepp et al., 2012; Herold, 2011; Ju et al., 2021; Lam, 2009; Seto & Martin, 2019). Digital platforms offer forums for sharing experiences, debate, and reaffirmation of identities, such as an immigrant Indian identity, which can exist in various forms transnationally (Black, 2006; Brantner & Herczeg, 2013; Yadlin-Segal, 2017). Others have noted that online cultural practices can reflect distinctive personal identities and elective group affinities, suggesting a move away from race and ethnicity as primary identifications (Mahiri & Kim, 2016). Moreover, Black (2006; 2009) notes that ‘virtual spaces’ transcend traditional cultural, linguistic, and geographic boundaries, creating new transnational contexts for identity development. These deterritorialized online spaces offer users multiple points of social and cultural contact with diverse individuals, aiding in the formulation of their identities. Moreover, online platforms draw users into transnational political and cultural discussions concerning national identities. Some researchers have examined the role of digital media users in political discourse, with social networking sites seen as facilitators of political change and activism where offline political opportunities may be limited (Jenkins, 2014; Liebermann, 2021; Shrodes, 2021; Stratton, 2019).

Yet some scholars question whether the internet truly serves as a virtual resource for resistance, and express concerns about political manipulation. Yadlin-Segal (2017) makes the case that much work is yet to be done to understand transnational political and cultural discussion. How do online platforms engage individual users in transnational political and cultural discussions related to national identities? This author points to a need to bridge the gap between studies focussing on the use of internet-based media for political resistance and literature on identity formation online. More pragmatically, Baker and Sangiamchit (2019) note that while some studies are longitudinal, there is a need for more detailed analysis to explore how transculturality and associated identities develop over time and in different online settings. This, they argue, would provide a deeper understanding of the dynamic nature of online identity. Extending this, (Jurkova & Guo, 2018)link transculturalism with transnational education, highlighting identity negotiation across institutional and migratory contexts.

iii.      Virtual ethnicity

The notion of ‘virtual ethnicity’ continues to attract attention within digital studies, particularly as scholars examine how ethnicity and identity are negotiated in online environments (Macfadyen, 2006). Digital discourses create spaces where individuals from diverse ethnic, social, and political backgrounds interact, making these contexts valuable for investigating how place, memory, and history are constructed in relation to digital technologies (Halstead, 2021). Recent research suggests a shift away from traditional markers of race and ethnicity as primary forms of identification, emphasizing instead cultural practices, personal identities, and elective group affinities that emerge in online communities (Mahiri & Kim, 2016). This evolution compels a re-examination of virtual ethnicity as a concept, especially in light of superdiversity (Barendregt, 2012; Solmaz, 2020)–a term describing the expanded array of linguistic, religious, ethnic, and cultural resources now present in contemporary societies and digital spaces. Accordingly, investigations into digital diversity increasingly focus on the role of online language practices in these superdiverse contexts, as well as how the availability of semiotic resources shapes the ways individuals perform identity in fluid, multifaceted digital settings (Solmaz, 2020).

iv.      Identity and participation in digital settings

Issues of identity in digital settings are explored both as a design element in educational practice, and as a function of participation in non-institutional online cultures. Work reviewed by Thorne et al. (2015) explores ways that online environments contribute to creation and curation of identity, involving new literacies, communicative genres, hybrid linguistic varieties, group formation processes, and social practices. The reflections offered by Jenkins (2014) meanwhile give greater attention to questions of collective agency and politics in digital spaces, reflecting a significant area of work whose primary focus is on the ways that digital technologies impact culture and politics. He examines connections between cultural and political participation, explores issues related to the use of new media for democratic change, analyzes how institutional power continues to affect culture even as access to cultural production and distribution expands and discusses both the difficulties and possibilities for developing cultural theory within the context of neo-liberal capitalism.

A continuing theme of interest also relates to how identity is presented or perceived in online intercultural interactions. Sandel et al. (2019) explore how online communicators may not always conform to their perceived national or cultural stereotypes. They propose that online environments might offer a space where traditional identity markers are less pronounced or are reconfigured.

Post-2004 research on online identities therefore continues to emphasize the transformative role of digital spaces in identity formation, particularly regarding ethnic, national, and personal identities, and their intersection with political and cultural discourse. Key challenges include understanding the complexities of hybrid identities and the political implications of online engagement, with future research needing to bridge existing disciplinary gaps and explore longitudinal developments.