Synthesizing across Theme 2, the following emerging directions draw together dynamics outlined above–community interaction, online-offline ties, deterritorialization, and identity work

 i.      Fluid, dynamic interactions

The proliferation of virtual social spaces has significantly enriched research on intercultural/transcultural communication, particularly with the emergence of English as a multilingual lingua franca facilitating interaction across cultural boundaries (Baker & Sangiamchit, 2019). 44 studies (27%) shared in this collection describe empirical studies investigating intercultural/transcultural dynamics in digital spaces. Many highlight that digital technologies have intensified the fluidity and transformation of forms, allowing cultural and linguistic practices to be continually changed, overlapped, re-purposed, re-contextualized, re-semiotized, and circulated within globalized networks. These digital environments foster interactions among users from diverse ethnic, social, and political backgrounds, enabling them to engage with one another’s histories and experiences in innovative ways (Halstead, 2021). While it is noted that physical venues remain crucial for cultivating local scenes, translocal and global communities increasingly find their foundation in dynamic online spaces, underscoring the evolving nature of digital interactions (Rendell, 2021).

ii.      Civic/political engagement and self-expression

Civic and political engagement and self-expression within digital contexts are increasingly characterized by emergent practices such as blogging, vlogging, online activism, and citizen journalism. Digital tools and spaces give individuals new avenues for participation while preserving personal privacy and offering flexible tools for self-performance. Many of the publications included in this 2025 collection address questions of user engagement in political and civic spheres using digital media (see for example Halstead, 2021; Mihelj & Jiménez‐Martínez, 2021; Pathak-Shelat & Bhatia, 2019; Shrodes, 2021; Stratton, 2019). Social media platforms play a crucial role in fostering transcultural citizenship by creating online communities in which individuals can share their experiences of oppression, struggles, and solidarity with audiences that span across the globe. Furthermore, the fluidity of digital engagement allows individuals to move seamlessly between online and offline spaces, sustaining their civic participation and continuing their involvement in causes that reflect their personal interests (Pathak-Shelat & Bhatia, 2019, 2020).

iii.      Fandom and popular culture

To our surprise, a small but definite new cluster of studies examining ‘fandom’ and digital popular culture communities in digital spaces emerged from our current search process (see for example Black, 2006; Black, 2009; Chin & Morimoto, 2013; Cornillie et al., 2021; Han, 2017; Hyzen & Bulck, 2021; Lynch, 2022; Misra, 2022; Thorne et al., 2015). These spaces, especially those structured around fanfiction and interactive fiction, are described as embodying a do-it-yourself ethos that welcomes both professionals and amateurs, fostering grassroots innovation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and a spirit of playfulness through activities such as online challenges and role-playing (Pathak-Shelat & Bhatia, 2019). Digital communities can also nurture parasocial relationships between artists and audiences, offering unique insights into artists’ identities and creative processes (Rendell, 2021).

iv.      Games as sites of intercultural/transcultural exchange

In 2004, the rare mentions of digital games in the literature that we reviewed were anxious. In his 1993 work The virtual community. Homesteading on the electronic frontier, Howard Rheingold’s 1993 considered the “fantasy cyberenvironments” of online role-playing games. His primary concern, however, was the question of whether genuine relationships could be established in communities where user identities could be so fluid. Separately, Lévy (2001a) listed addiction to digital games as evidence that the development of digital spaces and cultures did not necessarily generate ‘collective intelligence’.

By contrast, at least eight (5%) of the works uncovered in our recent search explore the intersection of digital games, culture, and learning, particularly focussing on how digital games can serve as platforms for intercultural and transcultural understanding and communication (Blume, 2021; Cornillie et al., 2021; Lee & Park, 2020; Neville et al., 2009; Park & Wen, 2016; Sydorenko et al., 2021; Thorne, 2008; Toscano, 2011). A central theme is the use of digital games as learning tools, often referred to as Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL), including the design and evaluation of DGBL games for specific learning objectives, such as language learning (Park & Wen, 2016). Several papers address cross-cultural psychology and the transcultural nature of digital gaming (see for example Blume, 2021). They highlight the potential for digital games to create transcultural spaces and new learning cultures, transfer cultural knowledge and support development of transcultural communicative competence, especially in diverse linguistic and cultural settings. Educational use of games is noted for fostering a deeper understanding of diverse identities and cultures, both online and offline, yet the literature cautions that such positive outcomes are not guaranteed and depend on culturally sensitive design and implementation. The effectiveness of Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) varies across social and cultural contexts, and there is a risk of disenfranchisement if learners feel their interests are being appropriated (Blume, 2021; Park & Wen, 2016).

In all, we find that the more recent literature presents digital spaces as dynamic arenas that facilitate diverse social interactions, new forms of civic engagement, and unique community building, while also presenting complex research considerations related to power and fluidity. This suggests that future research must consider the political context of participatory communities, paying attention to infrastructural and algorithmic design, and addressing issues of power within all virtual spaces. Sociolinguistics may offer especially rich insights into digital practices in such diverse spaces.

Treating digital cultures as evolving social formations shows that identity, belonging, and participation are co-produced by people, platforms, and place–so analyses and interventions must centre community norms and power. This emphasis on sociality, community norms, and belonging sets up Theme 3, where we examine how language and expressive practices enact these dynamics in everyday digital communication.