Pendulums are in common usage. Some have crucial uses, such as in clocks; some are for fun, such as a child’s swing; and some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line. For small displacements, a pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a small mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string, such as shown in Figure 1. Exploring the simple pendulum a bit further, we can discover the conditions under which it performs simple harmonic motion, and we can derive an interesting expression for its period.

We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length s. We see from Figure 1 that the net force on the bob is tangent to the arc and equals –mg sin θ. (The weight mg has components mg cos θ along the string and mg sin θ tangent to the arc.) Tension in the string exactly cancels the component mg cos θ parallel to the string. This leaves a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium position at θ = 0.

Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, then we have a simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we have a simple harmonic oscillator, we should note that for small angles (less than about 15°), sin θ is almost equal to θ ( sin θ and θ differ by about 1% or less at smaller angles). Thus, for angles less than about 15°, the restoring force F is

The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc length in a circle is related to its radius (L in this instance) by:

so that

For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:

This expression is of the form:

where the force constant is given by k = mg/L and the displacement is given by x = s. For angles less than about 15°, the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, and the simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator.

Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than about 15°. For the simple pendulum:

Thus,

for the period of a simple pendulum. This result is interesting because of its simplicity. The only things that affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. The period is completely independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic oscillators, the period T for a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less than about 15°. Even simple pendulum clocks can be finely adjusted and accurate.

Note the dependence of T on g. If the length of a pendulum is precisely known, it can actually be used to measure the acceleration due to gravity. Consider the following example.

Check Your Understanding

An engineer builds two simple pendula. Both are suspended from small wires secured to the ceiling of a room. Each pendulum hovers 2 cm above the floor. Pendulum 1 has a bob with a mass of 10 kg. Pendulum 2 has a bob with a mass of 100 kg. Describe how the motion of the pendula will differ if the bobs are both displaced by 12°.

PHET EXPLORATIONS: PENDULUM LAB

Play with one or two pendulums and discover how the period of a simple pendulum depends on the length of the string, the mass of the pendulum bob, and the amplitude of the swing. It’s easy to measure the period using the photogate timer. You can vary friction and the strength of gravity. Use the pendulum to find the value of[latex]g[/latex]on planet X. Notice the anharmonic behavior at large amplitude.