2 The Gendering of Sports: Societal Views of the Sex Segregation of Male and Female-Dominated Sports

Growing up in western society, there have always been expectations for children to contribute and play various sports and activities. However, society has limited the selections for which sports to play depending on an individual’s assigned gender at birth. Many sports were decided upon for children prematurely as they were, for the most part, separated into two categories, “male sports” and “female sports.” A primary issue is the idea of “male sports” and “female sports.” Society has implemented in children’s minds that certain sports and activities are only meant to be played by boys while others are intended to be played by girls (Xu, Fan, & Brown, 2021: 264). For example, many sports involving contact, such as football or hockey, are heavily pushed on young boys, while sports such as gymnastics, dance, and cheerleading are pushed more on young girls to perform (Anderson 2008: 258). This influence has increased the manipulation of the “traditional” view within western society as men and women are taught to have specific roles even within the sports world. Although, as a society, we have claimed to have drifted away from the traditional gender roles as an entirety, there are still continuously strong gender roles being subtly placed on children based on their assigned sex at birth within the sports world (Anderson 2008: 264). There are various views within society about the sports played by men or women, as some are viewed as superior to others solely based on the sex of the participants playing the sport. These views are placed by fans, media, and even those administering the sports leagues. These reinforce the gender norms for the athletes, furthering the control that the assigned gender roles hold over them. These gender roles and stereotypes tie in within the social hierarchy as well as specific sports are only played by those with higher social status or wealth. For example, golf is seen as a sport predominantly accessed by wealthy, older white men. The same goes for sports such as water polo. More affluent individuals access these sports as these sports are primarily seen in wealthier nations or only played at a youthful level through private schooling institutions (Moss 1993). These sports separate classes based on wealth. Researching and discussing these issues of gendering within sports can help identify the problems that transpire from gender roles within sports and follow the outcomes of these issues for the wider society to acknowledge and learn from so that children can become more comfortable in figuring out which sports they receive the most enjoyment from, without experiencing the feeling as if they are stepping away from an assigned role given to them.

According to Anderson (2008), the stereotypical gender roles placed on children in the sociological system further extend to the sports world they contribute to. From a young age, children are pushed towards different sports depending on their sex. Parents will always push their male children into sports that involve more physical contact, such as football, basketball, hockey, or baseball. In contrast, female children are pushed towards very individualistic sports that mirror the opposite of the “male sports,” such as dance, cheerleading, and gymnastics (Anderson 2008: 258). Plaza et al. state that the different perceptions of the sports belonging to the two sexes consistently indicate that sports were more likely to be perceived as “masculine” when they involved physical contact and the use of force or heavy objects (e.g., rugby, team sports, fighting sports) and “as “feminine” when they involved characteristics such as gracefulness and expression (e.g., dancing, ice skating, gymnastics)” (2016: 203). This imprinted idea that these sports belong to one sex and not the other has significant effects on the mind of kids growing up. By cognitively persuading children to believe that they are unable to contribute to a sport based on their sex, negative premonitions begin to form within the psyche of these children. These individuals begin to resent the sports of the other sex as they are not permitted to contribute to them, making those sports inferior or not significant enough (Anderson 2008). These ideas only seem to grow as individuals age more.

As children from a young age begin to resent the sports of the other sex, they also begin to feel pressured to conform to a role based on their sex. Young men will perceive that since they and all the other young men play sports involving more contact and physicality, they must play this role in their daily lives. This cognitive idea will make them believe that the behaviour within their sports must be translated over to their lives outside of sports. This makes them believe more physical, and brute attributes are primary characteristics of the role of a “man” within the real world (Plaza et al. 2016: 212). On the contrary, young women are taught to believe that sports that involve more expression, gracefulness, and less physicality are meant for them to play (Fields 2005: 13). Sports such as ice-skating, cheerleading, and dance are pushed more so on young women than men, giving these women the idea that these styles of sports are “female sports”. By incorporating this mindset into young women, society is forcing on them that, just like men, their behaviour and actions in sports must translate to their personal lives. This plays a significant factor in the stereotypical roles that are forced on women to be restrained, delicate, graceful, and faint (Fields 2005: 15). As children are so impressionable, these methods and ideas of “male sports” and “female sports” place a scare factor into them, making them not want to break away from these gender norms as they do not want to be singled out or seen as different from anyone else.

For the few individuals who do break away from the gender roles placed on them by contributing to a sport that is not forced on their assigned sex at birth, there are many stereotypes placed on them by society. Anderson states that it is widespread for society to view any man who contributes to a sport dominated by women as gay or bisexual, and any woman who plays a male-dominated sport is perceived as a lesbian (2008: 261). These gender stereotypes create negative ideas about gender perception as being gay as a man or woman is then deemed a negative commodity. These stereotypes of being gay by playing a sport of the other sex are always used negatively, meant to insult the individual. These terms place a pessimistic view of being gay for individuals, believing it is a cynical lifestyle to live. According to Anderson, studies have shown that since the 1970s, these terms and stereotypes in sports of being gay as a man or woman have significantly increased the number of individuals rejecting the idea of being gay out of fear or shame and continuing to conceive of the idea of gender roles within sports (2008: 262). This shame of being perceived as gay has provided a high quantity of inequality for gay athletes, as their sexuality is rejected within the world of sports. Placing children in this state of mind at such a young age gives them the perception that both men and women are exceedingly one-dimensional in life by serving a particular set role and that by stepping away from the norms of their sex, they are outcasting themselves in society. These roots of gender roles dig deep in the sports world of children, forming misconceptions of who they are or have to be from an extremely young age.

In contrast to the statements relating to specific sports being highly dominated by men, in recent decades, there has been a dramatic gender transformation in sports, most evident in youth sports. Parents, peers, and communities have all advocated more for young women to step out of the expected gendered roles in sports pushed on them. Although the forced gendered roles in sports still heavily dominate the sports society, small progress has been made in recent years to counteract that (Cooky & Messner 2018: 2). Millions of young women have flooded into soccer, basketball, and other sports in recent years, setting these sports apart as less of a “male sport,” and more as an activity shared by both sides (Cooky & Messner 2018: 6). Partly as a result of this substantial increase in participation, there has been a dramatic change in the cultural viewing and acceptance of girls’ athleticism. As much as the stereotyped “female sports” behaviour has been degraded, the female leagues within sports that are played by both sex have been degraded just as equally. An example of this would be women’s basketball. According to Grappendorf, Simmons, & Hancock, most average sports viewers hold the male side of a sport such as basketball to a much higher standard than the women (2020: 3). Their findings suggested that this opinion did not resolve from an experience of watching both the male and female leagues of basketball yet derived solely from the preference of gender of the viewer, who are most dominantly white males (Grappendorf, Simmons, & Hancock 2020: 3). Seeing as these sports such as basketball have transitioned from being solely masculine sports to being gender neutral only in recent years, the inclusion of women into sports such as basketball seems not to have an entirely positive outlook from everyone. By basing a preference of viewership towards a sports league on gender, it limits the availability for individuals to continue to play the sports they enjoy, as their sports are degraded by the viewers or the common public based solely on the sex of the players playing.

Many individuals view female athletes as less of an athlete within their selected sports than their male counterparts, solely based on the current viewership situation of demeaning female sports. This has extended so far as now children from a young age are cognitively taught that female athletes are inferior to male athletes, no matter what sport they play. In a study conducted in the United Kingdom, researchers questioned 278 young boys and 237 young girls to illustrate or describe someone who frequently played sports or someone they perceived as an athlete. More than “80% of all the children drew the sports figure as a man, and more than 60% of them identified the sport that the figure was playing as soccer” (Xu, Fan, & Brown 2021: 265). These results suggest that, from an early age, children internalize widely accepted sport-related gender types, which have far-reaching effects on attitude and behaviour (Xu, Fan, & Brown 2021: 265). The results from this UK study suggest that children learn certain habits and behaviours from a young age to identify female sports as inferior to male sports and that the ideal athlete is a male figure. These ideas can cause harm to the world of female sports, as it is internally present to female athletes that they are seen as inferior athletes to their male counterparts, especially to the female athletes that play neutral sports such as basketball or soccer, where a heavy bias is placed towards the male leagues from the viewers and spectators.

A subtle way female athletes playing neutral sports is subdued is by placing them in sports similar to that of the male sport yet have enough changes that male viewers can mimic them to oppress the idea of female athletics. According to Cooky & Messner, girls and boys are routinely sex-segregated into separate sports leagues (2018: 4). This does not solely mean that they are split into two leagues of the same sport. Primarily they are placed into different sports entirely. For example, boys play baseball, while most girls are channeled into softball. By doing so, this allows society to allow female athletes to play neutral sports, yet by having enough of a difference between the sports of baseball and softball, where there are many changes in rulings and playstyle, those who oppress female sports in society can continue to do so while being able to route for the male counterpart of the neutral sport. These sex segregations in similar sports, such as baseball and softball, do not break away from the gender mistreatment in sports of female athletes. Although there has been a rise in young female athletes contributing to playing neutral sports that, in the past, have been predominantly male sports, the overall attitude of society towards female sports contribution has been primarily negative. By placing such negative ideas associated with female sports, most young women will not feel as inclined to play sports in school as the young men, as they hear how society views all levels of female athletics as if it is more a hobby than anything. These gender roles of superior and inferior sporting leagues based on sex are one of the primary factors in how children, especially young women, are taught to believe that sex and gender in sports are paramount. When in reality, these gender roles in sports are a sociological way to undermine female contribution to sports and to integrate sex segregation into adolescent activities.

The division of sports reaches even further than the idea of sex and gender. Another issue that ties into roles in the sports world is the division of sports based on social status and wealth. Many sports, such as golf, water polo, horseback, and automobile racing, are commonly only played by the more fortunate and wealthier. At a youthful level, these sports are predominantly played through private schooling institutions. These institutions have higher budgeting from being accessible solely to wealthier families who wish to place their children in their programs (Moss 1993). Moss explains how the mental image of an individual playing golf throughout society is an older, wealthy, white male, and that this is primarily the demographic of players contributing to the sport of golf (1993: 95). This is the primary reason as to why sports such as these are not universally played by most people, as there is a gateway to enter the world of these sports that are only unlocked through social status or wealth. By having higher status or wealth in society, individuals can frequently play these sports, which by doing so, ultimately displays one’s power and wealth to the rest of society (Kidd 2013, Moss 1993).

One of the primary factors in sports that divides wealthier sports from the sports played by the majority of society is the ‘country club’. Like many other terms from the world of leisure and sport, the words’ country club’ tend to have an expansive meaning. These words suggest a certain tendency to exclusivity, smugness, and materialism (Moss 1993: 93). Country clubs are primarily seen as the housing of golf courses in society, as this is where most courses are found. By placing an exclusive sport into a system of clubhouses where individuals have to pay high amounts of wealth to enter, the demographic of golfers becomes even smaller as fewer people can afford to join. This also separates the status of golfers, as those who can afford to purchase golf bags, clubs, and balls, are still segregated from those who can afford to enter the clubhouse. By doing so, the separation reaches beyond excluding athletes from playing golf but also divides golfers depending on their social wealth and status. The ‘country club’ is one of the largest areas in sports that separate classes in sports, as it creates a sort of hierarchy within the sports world, only allowing access to those with wealth and status (Moss 1993: 96). Many children of wealthier families grow up playing these sports that are only accessible to those with wealth, dividing them from other kids their age who cannot afford the same activities and luxuries (Kidd 2013). Implementing a social system and hierarchy based on status and wealth into the sports world of children, internally teaches them that there is a difference between those who can afford luxury sports and those that cannot and that luxury sports are superior to others as it is more expensive to play and only acceptable to a particular few.

The division of wealthier sports, such as golf, reaches a level of gender or sex segregation as well. As stated earlier by Moss, golf is demographically viewed as a rich, older white man’s sport, not by coincidence (1993: 95). As golf is seen as a “male” wealthier sport, the exclusion of women in golf has become paramount. By affiliating this exclusive sport with the male sex, the inclusion of women attempting to play golf is minimal. Female athletes are seen much more rarely than male athletes in golf, as society has placed the sport within the spectrum of “male sports”. By doing so, gender roles extend even to these exclusive sports as female athletes are internally taught that this sport belongs to the other sex and is not meant for them. Kidd argues that sex segregation in golf is beneficial as it allows male athletes to bond in a sport that demands less physicality and more bonding time with others (2013: 555). However, this argument makes no effort to address the sex segregation of women in golf, as it solely focuses on the benefits of segregation and inclusion for wealthier male athletes. This ideology is very one-sided. By making wealthier sports, such as golf, more accessible to the general population, both class division and gender roles within sports may be reduced. This can be done primarily by reducing golf’s pricing, especially the cost and exclusivity of the ‘country club’ scheme.

Gender roles in sports have always been a predominant issue yet have become more subtle forms of sex segregation. The primary issue is the idea of “male sports” and “female sports.” Societal views of sports have implemented in children’s minds that certain sports and activities are only meant to be played by male athletes while others are intended to be played by female athletes (Xu, Fan, & Brown, 2021: 264). Examples include any sport involving contact, such as football, wrestling, or hockey, which are heavily pushed on young male athletes, while sports such as gymnastics, dance, and ice skating are pushed more on young female athletes to perform (Anderson 2008: 258). These gender roles placed on children create a system in which kids develop relationships with the sports they are allowed to play while resenting the sports performed by the other sex that they are taught are not meant for them. By doing so, society creates personalities within children that can develop into individuals who harbor resentment or disapproval of activities solely based on the effects these gender roles have placed on their cognitive development. According to Anderson, these effects lead to many young men forming habits of homophobia (2008). These effects of gender roles can be viewed throughout society as female sports such as basketball and soccer are often scrutinized due to the sex of the players. By creating negative societal attitudes towards a sport based on sex or gender, restrictions on sports possibilities concerning an individual’s gender are formed. Gender roles in sports have, and continue to, create gender segregation and conflicts in class and social status. Future research on gender roles in sports should investigate the explicit and implicit pathways by which gender stereotypes may influence individuals’ behaviors in the sport context. By doing so, ways to counter gender segregation and stereotypes in sports may be identified and used to discard these societal patterns, so that children growing up do not feel a pressure to conform to a role in the sports world, based on their sex.

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