1.1 What Is Public Relations?
Before we can begin to discuss the role of writing in public relations, we need to begin with a clear understanding of what public relations is, its value to organizations, as well as its common functions. You may have covered some of this content in an introductory public relations course, in which case, feel free to skim it.
What Is Public Relations?
According to the Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS), “Public relations is the strategic management of relationships between an organization and its diverse publics, through the use of communication, to achieve mutual understanding, realize organizational goals and serve the public interest.”* Simply put, public relations helps to build relationships and influence public perceptions and conversations about a client or company. These public conversations often take place through mass and social media, which is why public relations professionals need to understand how to work with and write effective messages for the media.
* The last phrase in this definition, “public interest,” is something that is defined differently by different groups. We will explore the concept of public interest in greater detail in section 1.3, which focuses on the ethical and legal responsibilities of the PR practitioner.
This short video, titled “What is public relations?” helps to visualize public relations.
Public relations professionals are in charge of a wide range of communication activities that may include increasing brand visibility and awareness, planning events, and creating content. Some of them also deal with crisis communication and help to salvage a brand’s integrity and reputation during a negative event.
Why Do Companies Need Public Relations?
There was a time when many companies did not see the value of public relations, unless a crisis happened. That perception is changing quickly, with more and more executives understanding the value of PR to the function of their organizations.
With the abundance of information readily available to audiences worldwide, companies are more vulnerable than ever to misinformation about their brand. An audience’s attitudes and beliefs about a company can greatly influence its success. Therefore, the public relations professional helps to monitor and control conversations about a company or client and manage its reputation in the marketplace. Viewing public relations as a key management function of a business or an essential strategy to manage one’s individual reputation can help accomplish important goals such as establishing trust among key publics, increasing news media and social media presence, and maintaining a consistent voice across communication platforms.
For more on the impact of reputation on business success, take a look at this article from The Entrepreneur.
Public Relations Versus Marketing Versus Advertising
Many people confuse public relations with marketing and advertising. Although there are similarities, there also are key differences.
Probably the most important difference between marketing, public relations, and advertising is the primary focus. Public relations emphasizes cultivating relationships between an organization or individual and key publics for the purpose of managing the client’s image. Marketing emphasizes the promotion of products and services for revenue purposes. Advertising is a communication tool used by public relations practitioners and marketers in order to raise awareness, affect audience perceptions, and/or get customers to act.
Four Models Of Public Relations
Grunig and Hunt (1984) developed four models of public relations that describe the field’s various management and organizational practices. These models serve as guidelines to create programs, strategies, and tactics and are still commonly cited today.
In the press agent/publicity model, communications professionals use persuasion to shape the thoughts and opinions of key audiences. In this model, accuracy is often sacrificed and organizations do not seek audience feedback or conduct audience analysis research. It is a one-way form of communication. One example is propaganda techniques.
The public information model moves away from the manipulative tactics used in the press agent model and presents more accurate information. However, the communication pattern is still one-way. Practitioners do not conduct audience analysis research to guide their strategies and tactics. Some press releases and newsletters are created based on this model, when audiences are not necessarily targeted or researched beforehand.
The two-way asymmetrical model presents a more “scientifically persuasive” way of communicating with key audiences. Here, content creators conduct research to better understand the audience’s attitudes and behaviors, which in turn informs the message strategy and creation. Still, persuasive communication is used in this model to benefit the organization more so than audiences; therefore, it is considered asymmetrical or imbalanced. The model is particularly popular in advertising and consumer marketing, fields that are specifically interested in increasing an organization’s profits.
Finally, the two-way symmetrical model argues that the public relations practitioner should serve as a liaison between the organization and key publics, rather than as a persuader. Here, practitioners are negotiators and use communication to ensure that all involved parties benefit, not just the organization that employs them. The term “symmetrical” is used because the model attempts to create a mutually beneficial situation. The two-way symmetrical model is deemed the most ethical model, one that professionals should aspire to use in their everyday tactics and strategies (Simpson, 2014).
General Roles In Public Relations
According to Smith (2013), public relations practitioners can be placed in two groups based on responsibilities: communication managers and communication technicians. Communication managers assist in the strategic planning of an organization’s communication efforts. The broad term “communication manager” includes several similar public relations positions: expert consultant, problem-solving facilitator, and communication liaison. Expert consultants develop a specific communication plan to help achieve organizational goals. Problem-solving facilitators provide crisis management to an organization during an obstacle. Liaisons speak on behalf of the brand and facilitate communication between the organization and its key publics.
Before entering a managerial role, most public relations practitioners begin their career as a communication technician. This can refer to a variety of entry-level positions, including public relations or communications specialist, communication assistant, and junior account manager. Communication technicians write news releases, story pitches, feature articles, and other communication materials and assist in event planning. Together, communication managers and technicians play a vital role in relationship building and the management of a brand.
PR Functions
Either private PR companies and agencies, or in-house communications staffers carry out PR functions. A PR group generally handles all aspects of an organization’s or individual’s media presence, including company publications and news releases. Such a group can range from just one person to dozens of employees depending on the size and scope of the organization.
PR functions include the following:
- Media relations: takes place with media outlets and includes news releases, news conferences, interviews, op-eds and editorial board meetings
- Organizational communications: occurs within a company between management and employees, and among subsidiaries of the same company
- Business-to-business: happens between businesses that are in partnership
- Public affairs: takes place with community leaders, opinion formers, and those involved in public issues (includes government lobbying)
- Investor relations: occurs with investors and shareholders
- Strategic communication: intended to accomplish a specific goal
- Issues management: keeping tabs on public issues important to the organization
- Crisis management: handling events that could damage an organization’s image and reputation1
Anatomy of a PR Campaign
Figure 12.13
Anatomy of a PR campaign
PR campaigns occur for any number of reasons. They can be a quick response to a crisis or emerging issue, or they can stem from a long-term strategy tied in with other organizational efforts. Regardless of its purpose, a typical campaign often involves four phases.
The Canadian Public Relations Society often references a similar model of campaign development called the R-A-C-E formula (Research, Analysis, Communication, Evaluation). See how Electra Communications applies it to their work in health marketing.
Initial Research Phase (Research in the RACE formula)
The first step of many PR campaigns is the initial research phase. First, practitioners identify and qualify the issue to be addressed/problem to be solved. Then, they research the organization itself to clarify issues of public perception, positioning, and internal dynamics. Strategists can also research the potential audience of the campaign. This audience may include media outlets, constituents, consumers, and competitors. Finally, the context of the campaign is often researched, including the possible consequences of the campaign and the potential effects on the organization. After considering all of these factors, practitioners are better educated to select the best type of campaign.
Strategy Phase (Analysis in the RACE formula)
During the strategy phase, PR professionals usually determine objectives focused on the desired goal of the campaign and formulate strategies to meet those objectives. Broad strategies such as deciding on the overall message of a campaign and the best way to communicate the message can be finalized at this time.
Tactics Phase (Communication in the RACE formula)
During the tactics phase, the PR group decides on the means to implement the strategies they formulated during the strategy phase. This process can involve devising specific communication techniques and selecting the forms of media that suit the message best. This phase may also address budgetary restrictions and possibilities. In the RACE formula, this phase include the actual implementation of tactics in the form of communication.
Evaluation Phase (Evaluation in the RACE formula)
After the overall campaign has been determined, PR practitioners enter the evaluation phase. The group can review their campaign plan and evaluate its potential effectiveness. They may also conduct research on the potential results to better understand the cost and benefits of the campaign. Specific criteria for evaluating the campaign when it is completed are also established at this time (Smith, 2002). In the RACE formula, evaluation metrics are outlined prior to communication taking place, and should be evaluated during and after the communication effort to determine if adjustments are required midstream, and to assess results and improve future efforts.
Branding and the Shift From Advertising to PR
While advertising is an essential aspect of initial brand creation, PR campaigns are vital to developing the more abstract aspects of a brand. These campaigns work to position a brand in the public arena in order to give it a sense of cultural importance.
Pioneered by such companies as Procter & Gamble during the 1930s, the older, advertising-centric model of branding focused on the product, using advertisements to associate a particular branded good with quality or some other positive cultural value. Yet, as consumers became exposed to ever-increasing numbers of advertisements, traditional advertising’s effectiveness dwindled. The ubiquity of modern advertising means the public is skeptical of—or even ignores—claims advertisers make about their products. This credibility gap can be overcome, however, when PR professionals using good promotional strategies step in.
The new PR-oriented model of branding focuses on the overall image of the company rather than on the specific merits of the product. This branding model seeks to associate a company with specific personal and cultural values that hold meaning for consumers.
Recently Toyota faced a marketing crisis when it instituted a massive recall based on safety issues. To counter the bad press, the company launched a series of commercials featuring top Toyota executives, urging the public to keep their faith in the brand (Bernstein, 2010). Much like the Volkswagen ads half a century before, Toyota used a style of self-awareness to market its automobiles. The positive PR campaign presented Toyotas as cars with a high standard of excellence, backed by a company striving to meet customers’ needs.
Studies in Success: Apple and Nike
Apple has also employed this type of branding with great effectiveness. By focusing on a consistent design style in which every product reinforces the Apple experience, the computer company has managed to position itself as a mark of individuality. Despite the cynical outlook of many Americans regarding commercial claims, the notion that Apple is a symbol of individualism has been adopted with very little irony.
Brand managers that once focused on the product now find themselves in the role of community leaders, responsible for the well-being of a cultural image (Atkin, 2004).
Kevin Roberts, the current CEO of Saatchi & Saatchi Worldwide, a branding-focused creative organization, has used the term “lovemark” as an alternative to trademark. This term encompasses brands that have created “loyalty beyond reason,” meaning that consumers feel loyal to a brand in much the same way they would toward friends or family members. Creating a sense of mystery around a brand generates an aura that bypasses the usual cynical take on commercial icons. A great deal of Apple’s success comes from the company’s mystique. Apple has successfully developed PR campaigns surrounding product releases that leak selected rumors to various press outlets but maintain secrecy over essential details, encouraging speculation by bloggers and mainstream journalists on the next product. All this combines to create a sense of mystery and an emotional anticipation for the product’s release.
Emotional connections are crucial to building a brand or lovemark. An early example of this kind of branding was Nike’s product endorsement deal with Michael Jordan during the 1990s. Jordan’s amazing, seemingly magical performances on the basketball court created his immense popularity, which was then further built up by a host of press outlets and fans who developed an emotional attachment to Jordan. As this connection spread throughout the country, Nike associated itself with Jordan and also with the emotional reaction he inspired in people. Essentially, the company inherited a PR machine that had been built around Jordan and that continues to function long after his retirement (Roberts, 2003).
Branding Backlashes
An important part of maintaining a consistent brand is preserving the emotional attachment consumers have to that brand. Just as PR campaigns build brands, PR crises can damage them. For example, the massive Gulf of Mexico oil spill in 2010 became a PR nightmare for BP, an oil company that had been using PR to rebrand itself as an environmentally friendly energy company.
In 2000, BP began a campaign presenting itself as “Beyond Petroleum,” rather than British Petroleum, the company’s original name. By acquiring a major solar company, BP became the world leader in solar production and in 2005 announced it would invest $8 billion in alternative energy over the following 10 years. BP’s marketing firm developed a PR campaign that, at least on the surface, emulated the forward-looking two-way symmetric PR model. The campaign conducted interviews with consumers, giving them an opportunity to air their grievances and publicize energy policy issues. BP’s website featured a carbon footprint calculator consumers could use to calculate the size of their environmental impact (Solman, 2008). The single explosion on BP’s deep-water oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico essentially nullified the PR work of the previous 10 years, immediately putting BP at the bottom of the list of environmentally concerned companies.
Other branding backlashes have plagued companies such as Nike and Starbucks. By building their brands into global symbols, both companies also came to represent unfettered capitalist greed to those who opposed them. During the 1999 World Trade Organization protests in Seattle, activists targeted Starbucks and Nike stores for physical attacks such as window smashing. Labor activists have also condemned Nike over the company’s use of sweatshops to manufacture shoes. Eventually, Nike created a vice president for corporate responsibility to deal with sweatshop issues.2
Blackspot: The Antibrand Brand
Adbusters, a publication devoted to reducing advertising’s influence on global culture, added action to its criticisms of Nike by creating its own shoe. Manufactured in union shops, Blackspot shoes contain recycled tire rubber and hemp fabric. The Blackspot logo is a simple round dot that looks like it has been scribbled with white paint, as if a typical logo had been covered over. The shoes also include a symbolic red dot on the toe with which to kick Nike. Blackspot shoes use the Nike brand to create their own antibrand, symbolizing progressive labor reform and environmentally sustainable business practices (New York Times, 2004).
Figure 12.16
Blackspot shoes developed as an antibrand alternative to regular sneakers.
Geoff Stearns – Black spot sneakers – CC BY 2.0.
Relationship With Politics and Government
Politics and PR have gone hand in hand since the dawn of political activity. Politicians communicate with their constituents and make their message known using PR strategies. An early example of political PR that followed the publicity model is Benjamin Franklin’s trip as US ambassador to France during the American Revolution. At the time of his trip, Franklin was an international celebrity, and the fashionable society of Paris celebrated his arrival; his choice of a symbolic American-style fur cap immediately inspired a new style of women’s wigs. Franklin also took a printing press with him to produce leaflets and publicity notices that circulated through Paris’s intellectual and fashionable circles. Such PR efforts eventually led to a treaty with France that helped the colonists win their freedom from Great Britain (Isaacson, 2003).
A recent and notable Canadian political PR effort is Prime Minister Justin Trudeau’s daily press conferences during the COVID-19 pandemic (a mix of crisis communication, issues management, and publicity). The photogenic Trudeau has combined his strength in public speaking and projection of empathy (though not in making occasional gaffes e.g. “Speaking Moistly”) with the medium of daily live video press conferences to help his government dominate the airwaves, and be seen as taking action, thereby bolstering his government’s reputation in the eyes of voters, and improving its future election prospects.
Lobbyists also attempt to influence public policy using PR campaigns. In 2013, I worked with the Coastal First Nations to produce a television and online ad campaign to sensitize viewers to the dangers of an oil spill. The Coastal First Nations were actively opposing the proposed Enbridge Northern Gateway pipeline which would bring oil tankers to the north coast of British Columbia, and were seeking to sway the federal government to cancel the project. Using archival footage of the Exxon Valdez oil spill from the Alaskan government archives, and pairing it with an iconic song from Simon & Garfunkel (The Sound of Silence), we created a commercial that visualized the horrors of an oil spill and connected with our target audience (baby boomers). The message was, “This is the sound of an oil spill (silence) after marine life and ocean-dependent industries are closed.” The ad racked up significant views on YouTube, but even more significantly, earned additional media coverage from television, newspapers, radio, and social media, helping us to reach a much larger audience on our small budget. The Globe and Mail called it a “hit” and it won an award.
Key Takeaways
- The four models of PR include traditional publicity, public information, persuasive communication, and two-way symmetrical models.
- PR campaigns begin with a research phase, develop objectives during a strategy phase, formulate ways to meet objectives during the tactics phase, and assess the proposed campaign during the evaluation phase.
- Branding focuses on the lifestyles and values inherent in a brand’s image as opposed to the products that are manufactured. It can be quickly undone by PR crises such as the BP oil spill.
- PR has always been an important part of political campaigning and activity. In recent years, branding has become an important part of national political campaigns.
1Theaker, 7.
2Klein, 366.
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