Natural Resource Extraction
Natural resources are vital to our survival and central to our individual and collective well-being. Living and nonliving elements of Earth’s system, including plants, wildlife, rocks, water, and minerals, are deemed to hold both intrinsic and monetary value and, consequently, make up the concept of a natural resource. The complex natural systems that provide us with drinkable water, clean air, fresh food, and a roof over our heads exist in a delicate balance with the methods and means by which we extract these valuable commodities. For decades, extensive extraction from our natural reserves to power our day-to-day lives has translated to monetary wealth for countries and companies that specialize in these practices. These practices still exist to this day as demand increases, despite the finite nature of so many of our resources.
Three out of Canada’s top five exports, crude oil, gold, and wood, are direct products of depletion of our natural environment.30 There is no question that these resources benefit Canada’s economy and that extracted resources give many of us the privilege of a comfortable existence. But, as these practices continue and the resources we rely on deplete, where are we left? How do we find the balance between respecting and protecting these rapidly depleting resources while also acknowledging their value in supporting the ways of life we have grown accustomed to? This section will explore an overview of the current state of natural resource extraction in Canada, with a specific focus on the role of and impact on rural communities. The relationship between these extractive practices and climate change will be explored along with the impacts to our human health. Finally, this section will propose and explore some sustainable pathways forward.
Where are we now?
In 2020, natural resources contributed 15.5% to Canada’s nominal GDP, with 909 communities reliant or significantly reliant on at least one of the natural resource sectors.31 Rural Canadian communities contribute 30% of the country’s GDP, with key sectors such as mining, agriculture, fisheries, forestries, energy resource extraction, and electricity production being the most significant.32 For centuries the use of natural resources has been considered a human right and a cornerstone for economic development.33
International treaties outlining the rights to natural resources, the processes of extraction and trade, and, ultimately, efforts to curb overexploitation have proliferated the natural resource extraction system. The 1972 Stockholm Declaration, emerging from the first ever UN conference to make the environment a major topic of concern, laid out the governance for sustainable resource extraction.34 Despite this international effort to curb the immense use of natural resources for economic development through multilateral agreements, the trajectory has yet to slow. As we emerge from the most recent Conference of the Parties with more national declarations to limit environmental pollution, actual action towards sustainability remains unfulfilled.
More locally, the federal government of Canada has initiated a number of programs to encourage the shift to cleaner energy. The Investing in Canada Plan was launched in 2016 with the commitment to inject $180 billion over 12 years into infrastructure that benefits Canadians.35 The three goals of the plan are to create jobs and growth, establish sustainable and resilient projects, and ensure that these projects are inclusive and accessible to all Canadians. $26.9 billion has been directed into green infrastructure investments, of which $9.2 billion is directed to green innovations such as cleaner energy production.32 Investments like these are important to support growing and sustaining green technology and are representative of a national commitment to build Canada’s resilience in the face of climate change. However, an independent audit found that there was incomplete and inconsistent reporting on the plan’s progress and a slower than planned dispersal of funds.36 Examples like this show that high-level policy can only take us so far.
The current status of sustainability efforts in rural Canada remains divided. Many rural communities have undergone sustainability planning, including social, economic, environmental, and cultural pillars, as increased public attention to these issues has grown substantially over the past decade.13 What was intended to be a linear process of problem identification, problem solving, and policy design through a structured approach actually became a selection of very diverse approaches and toolkits formed along political, regional, economic, and population lines.13 Particularly contentious is the use of natural resources as they frequently form the cornerstone to economic growth in rural communities.
Much of the focus for national policy on and direction for the natural resource sectors in rural Canada is on job creation and growth, relying on expanding these sectors to build a resilient workforce. Recently, greater investment has been made to support green innovation and technology across rural Canada. The Clean Energy for Rural and Remote Communities program provides funding for renewable energy in Indigenous, rural and remote communities across Canada. The goals of the program are to reduce the use of fossil fuels in order to create “environmental, social and economic benefits to support healthier and more sustainable communities.”37 Reducing dependency on diesel in particular has the potential to improve environmental and health outcomes.
Dr. Eliseo Orrantia discusses the impact of extractive industries in rural communities and their responsibility to practice sustainably (2:52)
Case Study: Old Growth Forests
Old growth forests play essential roles in the environment; including but not limited to, hydrological regimes, nutrient cycles, carbon storage, and numerous other ecological processes. It also acts as a habitat for numerous species.55 Outside of this, they are also an important part of some First Nations traditions; such as using red-cedar and yellow-cedar for totem poles, canoes and longhouses.56 However, the desire to log these trees to create products such as furniture has sparkled major controversy, causing numerous protests across BC.55 This commodification of sacred Indigenous spaces is deeply rooted in colonialism and racism. It not only disrespects the roles Indigenous peoples have for themselves as guardians of nature, but also in turn contributes to the unsustainable practices of consumption and commodification for commercial gain.57
“We must all make a living, and if there are few employment alternatives to destructive resource extraction, what choice is there? None. And so our lands and our culture are sacrificed. The government must provide funding for First Nations’ economic diversification to create jobs while allowing remaining old-growth forests and culturally important areas to be protected.”
– Joe Martin, master canoe carver and artist from the Tla-o-qui-aht Nation.56
The Ancient Forest Alliance is an organization that is dedicated to the protection of old growth forests. It was founded in February 2010 and has now quickly grown into “the main organization in BC working towards province-wide legislation to end the logging of endangered old-growth forests.”58 The organization has had numerous successes, through engaging with social media, news and activists who spoke up to decision makers in BC.58 The AFA were a major player in the implementation of two sets of land use orders that protect over 3,000 hectares of the highly endangered Coastal Douglas-Fir ecosystem on eastern Vancouver Island and on the Gulf Islands.58
Resource Extraction and Climate Change
Up until about 2000, extraction of fossil fuels was a significant boost to the global economy. The billions of tonnes harvested have strived to meet the ever growing global demand which has increased by 3.2% annually since the 1970s.38 However, for the last twenty-two years there has been a diminishing return to scale as resources become more expensive to extract and the environmental costs increase.38 The extraction and processing of natural resources make up half of the global greenhouse emissions and contribute significantly to biodiversity loss and water system degradation.39
A UN environmental study found that 80% of biodiversity loss and 85% of water stress is accounted for by land use change, particularly for the purposes of agriculture. 53% of the world’s carbon emissions come from extracting minerals out of the ground and preparing them for use, before accounting for any fuel that is burned.38 Extraction and environmental degradation go hand-in-hand. It is almost impossible to pull the resources that we use to power our day-to-day lives without disrupting the natural systems that they exist within. When forestry, mining, oil and gas, and agriculture industries extract in unsustainable ways the climate continues to be irrevocably damaged.
Resource Extraction and Human Health
The WHO has dubbed climate change to be the single greatest risk to human health and well-being.40 Perhaps one of the most convincing arguments for the creation of sustainable systems is the impact that our current structure will have on our collective well-being. Fossil fuels and natural resource extraction specifically contribute significantly to the overall impact of climate change on health. The health of the ecosystems around us are inherently linked to our own health and the destruction of these systems through resource extraction puts us in a very precarious position.
Continued reliance on non-renewable energy sources have forced us to encroach into animal habitats and increase our exposure to harmful viruses.41 Additionally, direct health impacts through exposure to contaminants and pollution as well as workplace accidents make working in these extractive industries dangerous.43 These immediate risks are coupled with serious health complications associated with long term exposure not only to workers but also to the communities that are in close proximity to the extraction sites. The most researched long-term effects of prolonged exposure to extractive processes include respiratory conditions, cancer, and blood disorders with mental health and psychological well-being accounting for only a small percentage of the overall research.42
Beyond exploration into the direct exposure to toxic materials produced through resource extraction, there remains a research gap in current work on the ecological and social determinants that influence health in relation to natural resource use. Brisbois et al. conducted a scoping review of the literature on resource extraction, specifically mining or oil and gas, and health effects to determine patterns and gaps in the scholarship. They found that most studies focused on the direct health impacts of mining in the global north, with very few adequately addressing the complex socio-ecological systems that these industries impact.44 Such research has been criticized for neglecting the “cumulative, inequity-laden and complex systemic pathways” that characterize these systems.44
In the Canadian context, rural and remote communities are particularly impacted as they are often situated on resource-valuable lands and are largely dependent on the extractive industries to employ residents and support the local economy. Consequently, these communities often suffer the trickle-down health impacts from the presence of non-renewable resource extraction. Deterioration of water cleanliness as a result of mining, exposure to chemicals used in fracking, and the impact on air quality from resulting air pollution make the presence of industry a liability to human health in these communities.43,45
Sustainable Solutions
As outlined above, current policy initiatives are underway to attempt to curb the environmental degradation caused by natural resource extraction. International treaties and government policies to support greener initiatives are important components to developing a resilient and sustainable natural system. However, policy and government funding can only take us so far, particularly when political polarization can block the implementation of effective climate policy.46 Consequently, a shift in our collective attitude towards the importance of natural resources and non-renewable extraction vis-a-vis economic development and human well-being needs reassessing. Part of this equation is considering our consumption patterns and how we as individuals and communities actually use the products of natural resource extraction in our daily lives.
Give precedence to practices of sustainable growth versus profit maximization in research and program evaluation
Being more conscientious of how much we are using our cars is a great way to not only reduce emissions but also save money by spending less on gas. However, Stefanie Hellweg, an environment and sustainability researcher, cautions against the ‘rebound effect’ where reductions in consumption that result in monetary or time savings actually can create greater patterns of consumption than the original target action.47 For example, saving money on gas because you are driving less may free up the finances to allow you to travel a farther distance on a plane for a holiday. This does not mean that efforts to curtail our individual use of resources is completely futile. Understanding these rebound effects, and ways to consciously reduce our consumption, is a step in the right direction.
Ultimately, we all will need to learn how to live differently, appreciate that the rate at which we are consuming our natural resources is not sustainable, and commit to a shift in perspective. Education on climate change is vital, particularly education that prioritizes critical thought, creative solutions and innovations, and empowers people to become ‘active agents of change.’48 Life-long learning, initiated at a young age, on the importance of preservation of our natural systems can create environmentally sustainable behaviour.
Local organizations championing education and sustainable project development can be excellent facilitators of small scale change. The Columbia Basin Trust (CBT) is an example of the power of local action. The Trust started in 1995 as an amalgamation of residents and local officials and representatives from regional districts and tribes in the Columbia Basin to negotiate with the Province for a share of the Columbia River Treaty revenues to support the economic, social, and environmental well-being of the region.49 Frustrated at the lack of attention paid to the local residents and their natural environment in the process of creating the Columbia River dam in 1961, the group successfully negotiated that “funds be allocated to the region, representing a fair share of the ongoing benefits being realized outside of the Basin as a result of the Columbia River Treaty” and “that a regional organization, governed by a board of Basin residents, be created to manage those funds.”49
With these funds, the CBT has been able to support locally-driven projects on climate resilience, community well-being, ecosystem enhancement, housing, and local food production and access. Projects such as Our Basin Charge Up support local efforts to become more energy efficient and decrease dependence on nonrenewable resources.50 The CBT is creating sustainable change through grassroots movements and the potential for these structures to be replicated in other jurisdictions should not be discounted. It is through these processes of local engagement that real action can emerge, particularly in the rapidly evolving arena of renewable energy production.
Blaine Grinder discusses how we can still profit from the land but through sustainable practices (1:27)
Case study: Sustainability Initiatives in Haida Gwaii
According to the Government of Canada, there are over 280 remote or rural communities across Canada that are not connected to the electrical grid and are therefore reliant on diesel generated power.51 Since 2016, the community of Haida Gwaii has begun an initiative to transition towards operating entirely on renewable energy sources. This place-based social-profit initiative, officially known as Swiilawiid, is dedicated by the community to the well-being of the lands, waters, and people.52
Information from the official website of Swiilawiid demonstrates the community’s commitment to these projects, stating that “this is important to our well-being and independence at a time of crisis, and it is our responsibility to our children and grandchildren.”52 The goals of this island are to become 100% energy sufficient and become leaders in the transition to equitable, regenerative, and community-owned power.53
One initiative among several that has been put into place involves “harnessing the power of the tides” as an alternative to diesel powered generations for the production of electricity.54 Tidal power was designed to capture the energy of tidal currents, moving away from a reliance on diesel energy and greatly reducing GHG emissions.
