Unit 4 — Grammar Focus

Commands and Requests

Table 9.4.2 – Four imperative levels

These are the common command/request forms using गर्नु (garnu).

Table 9.4.3 – Negative imperatives with na-

To say “don’t…,” Nepali adds न- (na-) to the imperative form.

Imperative formation by verb class

At the High and Super-Polite levels, imperatives are largely built from the dictionary form (–नु / –nu) plus a respectful suffix. The biggest verb-class differences show up in the Low and Middle levels, which are formed from a working base.

1) C-Verb Imperatives

For many C-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a consonant), Nepali imperatives come in clear politeness levels. The low imperative is often just the bare base and can sound abrupt in everyday speech. To soften it, speakers commonly use a middle imperative, which adds a short “support” vowel (often heard as -a) so the command sounds smoother and more conversational. For polite and respectful situations, Nepali typically uses the dictionary form (ending in -nu) plus a polite ending: –nuhos for standard polite commands and –nuholā for extra-politer, more deferential requests.

Table 9.4.4 – Imperative Forms of basnu “to sit” (by politeness level)

A quick reference to basnu (C-Verb) in four politeness levels, showing matching affirmative and negative forms (na- for “don’t”).

2) V-Verb Imperatives

For many V-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a single vowel), Nepali imperatives also follow clear politeness levels. The low imperative is simply the bare base and can sound direct. To make the command friendlier in casual conversation, speakers often use a middle imperative by adding the informal marker –ū. In polite and respectful contexts, Nepali again uses the dictionary form (ending in –nu) plus polite endings: –nuhos for standard polite requests and –nuholā for extra-polite, more deferential requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na-.

Table 9.4.5 – Imperative Forms of (khānu) “to eat” (by politeness level)

A quick reference to khānu (V-Verb) across four politeness levels, with matching affirmative and negative forms (negative uses na- “don’t”).

3) VV-Verb Imperatives

For many VV-verbs (verbs whose base ends in a vowel sequence, such as āu– or piu-), Nepali imperatives show a small but important difference at the casual levels. In the low imperative, speakers often use a shortened “call form” by dropping the final –u element (for example, ā “come!” and pi “drink!”). To make the command sound friendlier and more conversational, the middle imperative typically adds –ū. In polite and respectful contexts, VV-verbs follow the regular pattern: the dictionary form (ending in –nu) plus –nuhos for standard polite requests and –nuholā for extra-polite requests. Negative commands use the same pattern with na-.

Table 9.4.6 – Imperative Forms of (piunu) “to drink” (by politeness level)

A quick reference to piunu (VV-Verb) across four politeness levels, with matching affirmative and negative forms (negative uses na- “don’t”).

• खानुहोस् (khānuhos) → खानुस् (khānus)
• बस्नुहोस् (basnuhos) → बस्नुस् (basnus)

These reduced forms are common in speech and sound natural in many contexts.

Simple past tense

In Nepali, the simple past is the main past tense used to describe events, actions, and situations that are understood as completed. It is the default tense for reporting what happened, what someone did, or what was true at that time. In many cases, it matches the English simple past (for example: I went, she came, they ate, it was). However, Nepali also uses the simple past very naturally for recent updates—when something has just happened and the speaker is sharing new information. In these situations, English often prefers the present perfect (has/have), but Nepali still uses a simple past form, as in पानी आयो (pānī āyo.) “It started raining / It has started raining” and उहाँ आउनुभयो? (uhā̃ āunubhayo?) “Did he/she arrive? / Has he/she arrived?”

So, a useful way to think about it is: Nepali simple past signals past completion, but it is also widely used for recent ‘news’ or situation-change updates where English commonly chooses the present perfect.

1. How Simple Past Forms Are Built

In Nepali, simple past verb forms are built from two pieces: a past stem and a past ending. The stem carries the main verb meaning (for example “go,” “come,” “read,” “write”), and it usually stays consistent across the different subject forms. The ending then attaches to that stem and changes to match the subject—“I,” “you,” “he/she,” “we,” or “they.” In other words, Nepali expresses “who did it” mainly through the ending, not by changing the whole verb each time. Once you know the correct past stem, you can form many past-tense sentences simply by adding the appropriate subject ending.

Table 9.4.8 – Simple Past: Stem + Ending (How Forms Are Built)

The table shows how simple past verbs are formed by past stem + subject ending.

2. Past tense verb bases

A) Regular past bases

VV-verbs (double-Vowel verbs) have a present stem that includes a vowel + u sound, like आउ- (āu-), पिउ- (piu-), or पकाउ- (pakāu-). In the simple past, Nepali usually makes the stem shorter: the -u part disappears. After that, you add the same regular past endings (like -एँ, -यो, -ए).

Table 9.4.10 – VV-Verbs in the Past (u-Drop Past Stems)

VV-verbs (double-Vowel verbs) have a present stem that includes a vowel + u sound, like आउ- (āu-), पिउ- (piu-), or पकाउ- (pakāu-). In the simple past, Nepali usually makes the stem shorter: the -u part disappears. After that, you add the same regular past endings (like -एँ, -यो, -ए).

B) Irregular past bases

A small set of very common verbs does not follow the default stem rule (“drop –नु (-nu) and use that base in the past”) in a straightforward way. Some verbs show a stem change (often a vowel change), some are suppletive (a completely different past stem), and हुनु “to be” uses two past stems with a meaning contrast. Because these verbs appear constantly in beginner texts and classroom reporting, it is efficient to learn their past stems as listed.

Table 9.4.11 – Irregular Past Stems

Very common verbs with stem changes (learn these past stems as fixed).

3. Past tense verb endings

In Nepali, the simple past tense is formed by taking a verb’s past stem (base) and adding a subject-agreement ending. The choice of ending depends on who the subject is (person and number), and in some third-person forms there is also a feminine vs. default distinction. Because the same endings recur across many verbs, it is most efficient to learn them as a conjugation paradigm (a fixed set of endings that you “plug into” once the stem is known). The same paradigm also has negative counterparts.

Table 9.4.12 – Simple Past Endings (Affirmative and Negative)

The core past endings by subject—a reusable pattern for many verbs.

Table 9.4.13 – Simple Past of āunu “to come”

A complete conjugation model for a VV-verb (ā- past stem).

Table 9.4.14 – Simple Past of jānu “to go” (Irregular Past Stem)

जानु has an irregular plain past stem: ग- (ga-). So plain past forms use ग- + ending.

The simple past forms of ‘hunu‘ (to be)

The table lists both past series (थियो-series and भयो-series) for the same set of pronouns, and it shows the matching negative forms side by side (for example, थिएन vs भएन). The main point to notice is that for respectful subjects—तपाईं, उहाँ, उहाँहरू—Nepali usually does not use the plain forms थियो/भयो. Instead, it uses the honorific past forms हुनुभयो (affirmative) and हुनुभएन (negative).

Table 9.4.15 – Past of hunu: thiyo vs bhayo (State vs Change)

The table compares the two past series: थियो-forms (past state) vs भयो-forms (change/outcome), with negatives.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs are two broad verb types in Nepali, and the difference matters in the simple past because many transitive past sentences mark the subject with –ले (-le).

A transitive verb takes a direct object—something the action is done to. You see something, read something, write something, eat something, make something, give something, etc. Because the action affects an object, these verbs are transitive.

An intransitive verb does not take a direct object. Many intransitives describe movement (go, come, arrive), posture (sit, stand), or change of state (fall, become, happen). You can go to a place or come from a place, but that place is a location (often marked with -mā “in/to” or -dekhi “from”), not a direct object.

Transitive verbs and -ले (-le) in the simple past

In Nepali, the subject of a transitive verb in the simple past is commonly marked with -ले (-le). This marker identifies the subject as the agent—the intentional “doer” of a completed action—especially when the clause includes a direct object (something that is acted on). From a linguistic perspective, -ले is an agentive/instrumental postposition with an older “by/with” flavour, which is why it behaves like a postposition rather than a verbal ending. Because -ले is a postposition, it attaches to the oblique form of the subject. With many nouns this change is not visible, but with pronouns the oblique stem is often different. Two very common pronouns have special-looking forms: म (ma) → मैले (maile) and ऊ (ū) → उसले (usle). Most other pronouns follow a more transparent “pronoun + -ले” pattern, for example तिमी (timī) → तिमीले (timīle), तपाईं (tapāī̃) → तपाईंले (tapāī̃le), यो (yo) → यसले (yasle), त्यो (tyo) → त्यसले (tasle), and the agentive question form कसले? (kasle?) meaning “who (as the doer)?”

The list below gives the most useful pronoun + -ले forms you will see in beginner texts and dialogues.

Table 9.4.16 – Subject + –ले Forms (Pronouns)

The most useful pronoun + –ले forms used for past transitive subjects and “who did it?” (kasle).

These examples illustrate the transitive simple past pattern in Nepali. Because each sentence includes a direct object (ढोका “door,” किताब “book”) and a subject who performs an action on that object, the subject is marked with -ले (-le) (e.g., मैले, तपाईंले, उहाँले). The verb then appears in a past form that matches the level of respect: plain past for “I” (गरेँ, खोलेँ, पढेँ) and honorific past for polite “you” and respectful third person (गर्नुभयो, पढ्नुभयो).

Table 9.4.17 – Transitive Past with –ले

Examples where the subject is marked with –ले because the verb has a direct object.

In these examples, the verbs are intransitive (they do not take a direct object). The sentences describe movement (go) or posture/change of position (stand up, sit), so the subject is not marked with -ले (-le) in the simple past. Notice that the verb still changes for respect: the plain subject uses plain past (उठेँ, बसेँ, गएँ), while the honorific subject uses honorific past (उठ्नुभयो, बस्नुभयो, जानुभयो).

Table 9.4.18 – Intransitive Past Without –ले

Examples of past movement/posture verbs where –ले is not used.

Further Uses of -ले (-le)

Although -ले (-le) is best known for marking the agent in transitive past clauses (ergative pattern), it is more useful to think of -ले as an “agentive / instrumental” marker. In other words, -ले does not inherently mark tense. Instead, it marks a semantic role—most often (i) a doer/initiator, (ii) a questioned doer, (iii) an instrument/tool, or (iv) a cause/force. Because these are role-marking functions, -ले can appear with present, past, future, habitual, and even non-finite contexts, depending on the construction.

Below are several high-frequency patterns where -ले appears without being tied to “past transitive agent” meaning.

1) typical agent in habitual / generic statements

In some contexts, -ले marks a “typical” or characteristic agent—who generally does the action—especially in generic statements, instructions, and habitual descriptions. The time reference comes from aspect/tense marking on the verb (or from context), not from -ले.

Table 9.4.19 – –ले (le) in General Truths (Habit / Role Statements)

The table shows –ले as an agent-focus marker in non-past general statements.

Note: many speakers will prefer no -ले in non-past clauses in casual style, but you will still hear -ले when the speaker is foregrounding the doer as an initiator (who is responsible, who typically does it, who should do it).

2) questioned agent: कसले (kasle) “who (did it) / who (is the one that…)”

When the speaker questions the agent/doer, -ले is extremely common on the interrogative pronoun कस “who” → कसले “who (as agent/doer).” This is true even when the clause is not specifically past.

Table 9.4.20 – Asking “Who?” with कसले (kasle)

“Who (as the doer)?” questions typically use कसले, especially with actions.

This pattern is high-frequency in conversation because it directly targets responsibility/agency.

3) instrument / means: “with/by using X”

One of the most common non-ergative uses of -ले is marking the instrument or means used to carry out an action—similar to “with” / “by means of” in English.

Table 9.4.21 – –ले (le) for Instruments (“with”)- as instrument (

–ले can mark the tool/body part used to do an action (“with”).

Tip for learners: the verb’s tense/aspect tells you when the event happens; -ले only tells you what served as the tool/means.

4) cause / force: “because of / due to / by the effect of X”

Nepali often uses -ले to mark a cause, trigger, or natural force—especially when something happens due to an external condition rather than a deliberate human agent. This is very common with illness, weather, heat/cold, alcohol, stress, and other “forces” that produce an effect.

Table 9.4.22 – –ले (le) for Cause (“because of”)

–ले can mark a cause/reason (“due to”), not an agent.

In these clauses, -ले is not saying “past agent”; it is identifying the source of causation.

Honorific -जी (-jī) and -ज्यू (-jyū) in Respectful Address

-जी (-jī) is a common Nepali honorific used to show respect when addressing or referring to someone. It is typically attached to a personal name and functions as a polite marker similar to “Mr./Ms.” in English, but more flexible in everyday speech. Grammatically, -जी behaves like an honorific clitic/suffix: it does not change tense, number, or the core meaning of the sentence; instead, it adds a social meaning—respect, formality, and distance. In direct address (vocative use), it helps make greetings and requests sound appropriately polite, especially when speaking to elders, guests, teachers, or someone you do not know well.

-जी (-jī) is a common honorific used with names and kinship terms to add respect and politeness.

Table 9.4.23 – –जी (-jī) in Respectful Address

–जी is a common polite marker used with names and kin terms in everyday respectful speech.

-ज्यू (-jyū) is a more respectful honorific commonly used with titles/roles, especially in formal settings.

Table 9.4.24 – –ज्यू (-jyū) with Titles (More Formal Respect)

-ज्यू (-jyū) is a more respectful honorific commonly used with titles/roles, especially in formal settings.